Psychology Exam Complete Review

What is psychology?

scientific study of mind and behavior

What do students learn in psych

Critical thinking skills

Scientific method

Complexity of behavior

Before pscyhology, how was the mind studied

mind studied by philosophers

Who is considered the founder of psychology as a science?

Wilhelm Wundt

What is structuralism in psychology?

The study of mental experience by breaking it into components,

Who pioneered structuralism?

Wilhelm Wundt

William James

First American psychologist

Used introspection + objective measures

Functionalism

Functionalism

= how mental activities help adaptation , Williamn James

Who developed psychoanalytic theory?

Sigmund Freud

What does psychoanalytic theory suggest shapes behavior?

The unconscious mind

What techniques did Freud use in his psychoanalytic practice?

Dream analysis, slips of tongue, free association

What was a primary focus of Freud's work?

Hysteria and neuroses

Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler)

Focus on the whole person/experience, not parts

Influenced sensation & perception studies

Behaviorism

Psychology should be objective (study observable behavior only)

John Watson = father of behaviorism

B. F. Skinner

operant conditioning (reinforcement & punishment)

What is humanistic psychology a reaction against?

Behaviorism & psychoanalysis

What does humanistic psychology focus on?

Human potential & goodness

Who is a key figure associated with the hierarchy of needs?

Maslow

Who is known for client-centered therapy?

Rogers

What was the focus of the Cognitive Revolution that began in the 1950s?

Return to studying mental processes

Which fields influenced the Cognitive Revolution?

Neuroscience and computer science

What two aspects did the Cognitive Revolution emphasize?

Cognition and behaviour

Biological psychology

biological bases of behavior

Sensation & perception

how sensory info → experience

Cognitive psychology

thought ↔ behavior

Developmental psychology

lifespan changes

Personality psychology

individual patterns of behavior, thought, emotion

Industrial–organizational (I-O)

workplace psychology

Health psychology

healthy living & wellness

Clinical psychology

diagnosis & treatment of disorders

Sport & exercise psychology

mind-body-performance link

Forensic psychology

psychology & justice system

Applied Psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems

Doctoral degree

academic careers, clinical psychologist

Master’s degree

nonacademic psychology careers (counseling, applied fields)

Bachelor’s degree

fewer direct psychology jobs, but skills apply broadly (research, critical thinking, communication)

How does psychology apply scientific methods?

to study behaviour

Optimism

psychological science will continue to improve human life.

Edward Jenner

"father of immunology," vaccines, eradicated smallpox.

Fritz Haber & Norman Borlaug

"Green Revolution," hybrid crops & synthetic fertilizer → solved global food shortages.

1900s vs. today:

Life expectancy ↑ (47 → 79 years).

Technology spread (phones, electricity, TV).

Hunger & malnutrition ↓.

IQ scores ↑ (nutrition + schooling).

Science

systematic observation to gain knowledge.

characteristics of science:

Systematic observation, hypothesis , cumulative, democratic

Systematic observation

organized, measured, recorded, controlled conditions.

Hypotheses

testable claims.

Democratic

open debate, peer review, best evidence wins.

Cumulative

builds on past knowledge (e.g., Newton → modern physics).

Why do people doubt that psychology is a science?

thoughts/feelings not directly observable).

Behavioral focus

infer thoughts/feelings from actions.

Francis Galton (1800s):

Invented self-report questionnaires.

Studied twin similarities → "Nature vs. nurture."

Nature Vs Nurture

the age-old debate about whether human traits are shaped more by genetics (nature) (heredity, innate biology) or environment (nurture) (upbringing, experiences, culture).

Self-report

(scales, surveys).

Peer report

(friends/family).

Memory measures

(positive/negative recall).

Biological measures

(cortisol, fMRI).

Therapy

treatment methods aimed at making people feel better and function more effectively

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

effective for depression, anxiety.

Organizational psychology:

boosts productivity & workplace satisfaction.

Human factors engineering:

safer product design (e.g., aircraft cockpits).

Forensic psychology:

eyewitness memory research (Elizabeth Loftus) improves the justice system.

Ethics in Psychological Research

Psychologists study humans → must protect participants.

Informed consent

participants know what study involves.

Confidentiality

personal info kept private.

Privacy

no observing in private places without consent.

Benefits vs. risks

risks allowed only if outweighed by benefits.

Deception (with debriefing)

sometimes needed, but must explain afterward.

Why Learn About Scientific Psychology?

To understand yourself.

To understand others & groups.

To influence/help others (parenting, therapy, motivation).

To prepare for careers (psychology-related or general).

To evaluate scientific claims in the media.

Psychology research uses different designs:

correlational, experimental, longitudinal, quasi-experimental, qualitative, and surveys.

Choice of method depends on

research questions, resources, and ethics.

Experiment

Manipulate IV (independent variable), measure effect on DV (dependent variable).

Independent Variable (IV)

manipulated factor (e.g., spend $20 on self vs. others).

Dependent Variable (DV):

measured outcome (e.g., happiness).

Random assignment

ensures groups are similar → allows causal conclusions.

Confounds:

outside factors that interfere with causal claims.

Placebo effect:

changes due to expectations, not actual treatment.

Participant demand:

participants act how they think the experimenter wants.

Double-blind procedure

prevents bias (neither participant nor experimenter knows condition).

Correlational research

passive observation of how two variables relate.

Correlational research methods

Uses scatterplots and correlation coefficient (r) to show direction + strength.

Positive correlation:

variables increase/decrease together (e.g., generosity ↑, happiness ↑).

Negative correlation:

one ↑, other ↓ (e.g., disease prevalence ↑, height ↓).

r = 0

no relationship.

Strength

closer |r| is to 1.0.

Correlation ≠ causation

can't prove one variable causes the other.

What are Quasi-Experimental Designs?

Designs that are like experiments but do not use random assignment.

What type of groups do Quasi-Experimental Designs use?

Pre-existing groups, such as married vs. single individuals.

What is a limitation of Quasi-Experimental Designs?

It is harder to make causal claims due to potential confounds.

What is an example of a confound in Quasi-Experimental Designs?

Happier people may be more likely to marry.

 Longitudinal Studies

Track the same people over time (weeks → decades).

Pros: powerful evidence, track changes.

Cons: expensive, time-consuming.

Participant observation:

researcher joins group to study behavior (e.g., cult study).

Case studies

intensive study of one person/context (e.g., brain injury patients).

Narrative analysis:

analyze stories, testimonies, or personal accounts.

Surveys

Gather large amounts of data cheaply + quickly.

Often correlational, but can be experimental too (depends on design).

Example: Happy vs. unhappy person judged on likelihood of going to heaven.

What are some practical tradeoffs in research?

Resources, time, money.

What ethical consideration prevents researchers from randomly assigning harmful conditions?

Researchers cannot randomly assign harmful conditions such as brain injury, abuse, or war.

What is a common initial method researchers use before conducting experiments?

Surveys or correlations.

What types of studies do researchers often follow up with after initial surveys?

Experiments or longitudinal studies.

Operational definitions:

precise ways concepts are measured.

What does science need to be

systematic, data-based, testable, and falsifiable.

Why Scientific Thinking Matters

We are bombarded with claims daily (news, social media, opinions).

Science helps us separate trustworthy information from anecdotal evidence (personal stories, opinions).