Anatomy and Physiology(RVT) FINAL PART 3

Plasma

The liquid portion of blood.

Cellular portion of blood

Cellular portion of blood made up of red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).

Hematopoiesis

Production and maturing of all blood cells.

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells; production is called erythropoiesis. Main function is to carry oxygen to the body's tissues via hemoglobin.

Thrombopoiesis

Production and maturation of platelets in bone marrow, play an essential part in hemostasis.

Leukopoiesis

Production and maturation of WBCs in bone marrow; provide a defense for the body against foreign invaders.

Granulocytes

White blood cells with granules in their cytoplasm (basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils).

Granulopoiesis

Granulocyte production and maturation.

Agranulocytes

White blood cells without granules in their cytoplasm (monocytes, lymphocytes).

Anemia

A pathological condition that results in a decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Polycythemia

An increase above normal in the number of RBCs.

Lymph

The fluid carried by the lymphatic system.

Lymphatic System

System of ducts and fluid lymph; picks up fluid and carries lymph to blood vessels near heart.

Edema

Accumulation of fluid in the tissues.

Immunology

Branch of medicine concerned with immunity.

Immune System

Protects animal from infection by pathogens or antigens.

Immunity

Immune reaction that helps fight pathogens & antigens.

Immunization

Animal develops specific immunity to a particular pathogen or antigen, either naturally or artificially.

Innate Immunity

Non-specific immunity; first line of defense; involves mechanical and chemical barriers.

Acquired Immunity

Specific, non-innate immunity.

Cell-Mediated Immunity

Immunity resulting from T cells attaching to antigenic sites on the surfaces of foreign cells.

Humoral Immunity

Immunity where B cells transform into plasma cells and produce specific protective proteins (antibodies) against specific antigens.

Epitope

Unique shaped area on every antigen's cell membrane that fits into an antibody.

Antibodies

Also known as immunoglobulins (Ig); five types are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD.

IgM

Produced when an animal is first exposed to an antigen; largest antibody, found in blood and lymph fluid.

IgG

Most common antibody released by plasma cells; involved in fighting bacterial and viral infections; able to cross the placenta.

IgA

Protects body surface from foreign substances; prevents diseases caused by antigens that enter the body through mucosal surfaces.

IgE

Associated with an allergic response; binds to allergens and triggers histamine release; protects against some helminth infections.

Anaphylaxis

Exaggerated allergic response that is frequently life-threatening.

Passive Immunity

Involves administering antibodies that were not produced by the animal’s own immune system.

Colostrum

Antibody-rich first milk a mother produces.

Active Immunity

Immunity which results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen.

Lymphocytosis

Increased number of lymphocytes in peripheral blood

Lymphopenia

Fewer lymphocytes in peripheral blood

Endocrine System

System of glands that control and regulate body functions through hormones.

Ductless Glands

Glands that release hormones (chemical messengers) that target cells, secreting directly into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that target cells.

Negative Feedback

A hormone inhibits the production of another hormone to maintain homeostasis.

Direct Stimulation

Short/fast form of feedback system from the nervous system where hormone secretion is stimulated by sympathetic nerve impulses.

Hypothalamus

Controls pituitary gland activities through a portal system of blood vessels, secreting releasing and inhibiting factors.

Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

The rostral portion of the pituitary gland.

Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)

The caudal portion of the pituitary gland.

Growth Hormone (Somatotropin)

Promotes body growth in young animals and regulates metabolism (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids).

Prolactin (PRL)

Triggers and maintains lactation; release continues with stimulation.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Promotes growth and development of the thyroid gland and hormones; regulated by negative feedback from thyroid gland.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Promotes growth and development of adrenal cortex and release of hormones; release regulated by feedback; quick release by hypothalamus stimulation.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Stimulates the growth and development of the ovaries and testes.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Stimulates the growth and development of the ovaries and testes; Increase of estrogen feedback reduces FSH and increases LH. LH reaches a peak at follicle maturity & causes ovulation.

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

Color changes in pigment cells to adapt to the environment. Artificial administration causes darkening of skin.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Prevents diuresis; secreted by posterior pituitary and directed to kidneys. Kidneys reabsorb water from urine and return it to bloodstream.

Oxytocin

Target organs are the uterus (contractions) and mammary glands (milk letdown).

Thyroid Gland

Hormones T3 (Triiodothyronine), T4 (Tetraiodothyronine, or thyroxine), and Calcitonin are produced when TSH reaches gland. Similar effect on metabolism to GH.

T3 & T4

Development of CNS, muscles, and bones + Regulates metabolic rate of all body cells via heat production. Production increases with exposure to cold & increases metabolic rate.

Calcitonin

Maintains blood calcium levels; prevents Hypercalcemia. Excess calcium deposited in bones; Involved in muscle contraction, blood clotting, milk secretion, and maintenance of the skeleton.

Parathyroid Hormone (Parathormone)

Maintains blood calcium levels opposite of calcitonin; prevents Hypocalcemia. Kidneys retain calcium, intestines absorb calcium from food, and pulls calcium from bones.

Adrenal Glands

Located near the cranial ends of the kidneys; consist of the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.

Glucocorticoids

Hyperglycemic effect, maintain blood pressure, and resist effects of stress (Cortisone, Cortisol, and Corticosterone).

Mineralocorticoids

Regulates level of important electrolytes in body. Effects levels of sodium, potassium, and hydrogen. (Aldosterone)

Adrenal Medulla

Produces Epinephrine and Norepinephrine. Secretion controlled by sympathetic nervous system, for the “Flight” or “Fight” Response.

Glucagon

Stimulates liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose; raises blood glucose

Insulin

Absorbs glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids into body cells for energy; lowers blood glucose

somatostatin

Inhibits secretion of insulin, glucagon, and GH

Testes

Testosterone and spermatogenesis. Development of male secondary sex characteristics.

Ovaries

Estrogen, progesterone and oogenesis. Prepare female for breeding and pregnancy. Progesterone needed to maintain pregnancy

Erythropoietin

Stimulates bone marrow to increase production of red blood cells; production stimulated by hypoxia.

Gastrin

Secretion stimulated by presence of food; secrete hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes. Encourages muscular contractions of stomach wall.

Secretin

Secretion in response to partially digested material (chyme); stimulates secretion of sodium bicarbonate which Neutralizes acidic chyme from stomach.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Stimulates pancreas to release digestive enzymes; Both inhibit gastric secretions and stomach motility and stimulate gallbladder contraction sending bile down to aid digestion and absorption of fat and fat-soluble vitamins

Placenta

Produces hormones to help support and maintain pregnancy - Estrogen and progesterone in small amounts Chorionic gonadotropin (in some species) in larger amounts

Thymus

Helps kick start immune system. Produces T lymphocytes (T-cells)

Melatonin

Hormone-like substance influences cyclic activities; Affect moods and wake- sleep cycles; Timing of seasonal estrous cycles.

Prostaglandins

Regulate activities of neighboring cells and sensitive nerve endings; Influence blood pressure, blood clotting, inflammation, GI, respiratory, kidney, and reproductive function.

External respiration

Exchange of O2 and CO2 between inhaled air and pulmonary capillaries.

Internal respiration

Exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood in systemic capillaries and all cells and tissues of the body.

Voice Production

Also called phonation, usually begins in the larynx aka voice box

Vocal cords

Two fibrous connective tissue bands stretch across the larynx and vibrate as air passes

Acid-base balance

An important homeostatic mechanism in the body

Upper Respiratory Tract

All respiratory structures outside the lungs

Lower Respiratory Tract

All respiratory structures within the lungs

Nares

External openings of the respiratory tube; lead into the nasal passages

Nasal Passages

Located between the nares and the pharynx

Turbinates

Thin, scroll-like bones covered with nasal epithelium within the lumen of nasal passages

Paranasal Sinuses (Sinuses)

Outpouchings contained within spaces in certain skull bones

Pharynx (Throat)

Common passageway for both the respiratory and digestive systems

Larynx (Voice box)

Short, irregular tube connecting the pharynx with the trachea

Epiglottis

Leaf-shaped and projects forward from the ventral portion of the larynx

Endotracheal Intubation

A soft rubber or plastic tube, called an endotracheal (ET) tube, is inserted through the glottis and advanced down into the trachea

Trachea (Windpipe)

Wide tube of fibrous and smooth muscle tissue held open by hyaline cartilage rings

Bifurcation

Trachea divides into two main bronchi that enter the lungs

Alveoli

Tiny, thin-walled sacs that are surrounded by networks of capillaries

Hilum (Hilus)

Where air, blood, lymph, and nerves enter and leave each lung

Diaphragm

Thin sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the caudal boundary of the thorax

Inspiration (Inhalation)

Enlargement of the volume of the thoracic cavity by the inspiratory muscles.

Expiration (Exhalation)

Reduction of the thoracic cavity by the expiratory muscles.

Tidal volume

The volume of air inspired and expired during one breath

Minute volume

The volume of air inspired and expired for one minute

Residual volume

Volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration

Sinusitis

The sinuses can be clinically significant if they become inflamed and swollen as a result of allergies, infections, tumors, etc.

Aspiration Pneumonia

Inflammatory condition of the lungs produced by inhalation of foreign materials.

Asthma

Disease that causes the bronchial tree to become overly sensitive to certain irritants.