2022 Science Midterm study guide

Plates slip past each other

Transform boundary

A possible explanation for a set of observations or answer to a scientific question; must be testable

Hypothesis

The factor that differs between your experimental and control groups. It is what YOU manipulate

Independent Variable

The factor that you measure. These measurements DEPEND on the independent variable. Any data that you take is your dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The group that is tested on so that you can look back and compare other tests to

Control

Any aspect of your experiment and control groups

Constants

Purpose; define the problem

1st step of the scientific method

Research

2nd step of the scientific method

Hypothesis

3rd step of the scientific method

Experiment

4th step of the scientific method

Analysis

5th step of the scientific method

Conclusion

6th step of the scientific method

The experiment must be repeated several times; The sample size must be large; The sample group must be chosen at random; The data collected should be a measurable concept; Make sure there is only 1 independent variable; The experiment must have a control for comparison

What makes an experiment valid

on the x axis

Where does an independent variable get graphed

on the y axis

Where does a dependent variable get graphed

A supercontinent that was formed 300 million years ago

Pangea

Any trace of an ancient organism that has been preserved in rock

Fossil

A section of the lithosphere that slowly moves over the asthenosphere, carrying pieces of continental and oceanic crust

Plate

Breaks in Earth's crust where rocks have slipped past each other; earthquakes form along these

Fault

A system that uses reflected sound waves to locate and determine the distance to objects underwater

Sonar

When mid ocean ridges continually add new material to the ocean floor which results in more crust being added to the ocean floor while at the same time older stripes of rock move outward from either side of the ridge

Sea floor spreading

The process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep ocean trench and back into the mantle again

Subduction

work together to move the ocean floor; controls the size of the Earth's oceans based on how fast crust is being created and swallowed

Sea floor spreading and subduction

where crust is created in sea floor spreading

Mid ocean ridges

consumes crust in subduction

Deep ocean trench

Wegner's idea that continents slowly move over Earth's surface

Continental drift

Plates move apart, or diverge, from each other

Divergent boundary

Plates com together or converge

Convergent boundary

Rift valleys

Divergent boundary (example)

Andes Mountains

Convergent boundary(example)

San Andreas

Transform boundary(example)

identical strips on the sea floor

Magnetic striping

force that acts on a rock to change its shape or volume

Stress

the stress force that pulls on the crust and thin rock in the middle

Tension

the stress force that squeezes rock until it fields or breaks

Compression

stress that pushes a mass of rock in two opposite directions

Shearing

the shaking and trembling that resuts from the movement of rock beneath the Earth's surface

Earthquakes

the point on the surface directly above the focus

Epicenter

the area beneath Earth's surface where rock that was under stress begins to break or move

Focus

as instrument that records and measures an earthquake's seismic waves

Seismograph

seismic waves compress and expand the ground like an accordion. First waves to arrive; primary. Can travel through solids and liquids

P waves

seismic waves can vibrate from side to side or up and down. Their vibrations are at a right angle to the directionthey travel. When they reach the surface they shake structures violently. Cannot pass through liquids. Secondary

S waves

Waves that move slower than primary and seconary waves. They produce severe ground movement. They produce movement that is similar to waves in water, where the water's articles move in a pattern that is almost cirular. They can make the ground roll like ocean waves or shake building from side to side

Surface wave

Forces of plate movement (a release of stress) causes the rock to break, resukting in the shaking of Earth's surface

Causes of an earthquake

Pulling in opposite directions; thins rock in the crust

Tension

pushing together; froces that squeeze rock until it folds or breaks

Compression

Pushing in opposite directions; cuases rock to slip apart or change shape

Shearing

faults

Where earthquakes occur

compress and expand the ground like an accordion ( travel through solids and liquids)

How do seismic waves move; P waves

vibrate side to side or up and down; only travel through solids and shake structures violently

How do seismic waves move; S waves

move almost like a water wave (circular); these waves form when S and P waves reach the surface

How do seismic waves move; Surface Waves

Based solely on human observation

Modified Mercalli Scale

Rate earthquakes based on the size of waves

Rickter Scale

rate earthquakes based on the amount of energy released

Moment Magnitude Scale

Rio Grande River

Normal fault (example)

Northern Rocky Mountains

Reverse fault (example)

San Andreas

Strike Slip fault (example)

a fold in the rock that bends upward into an arch

Anticline

a fold in the rock that bends down to form a V shape

Syncline

the process that breaks down rock and other substances

Erosion

refers to the wearing away of rock by rock particles carried by water, ice, wind, or gravity

Abrasion

This means a material is full of tiny connected air spaces that allow water to seep through it

Permeable

the loose weathering material on Earth's surface in which plants can grow

Soil

the solid layer of rock beneath the soil

Bedrock

a dark-colored substance that forms as plant and animal remains decay

Humus

Soil that is made up of about equal parts of clay, sand, and silt. The best soil for growing most plant

Loam

iron combines with oxygen in the presence of water

Oxidation

heat, cold, water, ice, and gases

Factors that affect the rate of weathering

when a rock is physically broken down into smaller pieces

Mechanical weathering

when rocks and minerals undergo changes in their chemical makeup

Chemical weathering

animal actions, freezing and thawing, plant growth, release of pressure, abrasion

Agents of mechanical weathering

water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, living organisms, acid rain

Agents of chemical weathering

compositions, fertility, texture, pH

characteristics of soil

forms as bedrock begins to weather. The rock breaks up into small particles

C Horizon

top; forms as plants add organic materials

A Horizon

forms as rainwater washes these materials down from the A horizon

B Horizon

carbon dioxide

Weathers away marble and limestone

the process by which natural forces move weathered rock and soil from one place to another

Erosion

what occurs where the agents of erosion deposit, or lay down, sediment. It changes the shape of the land

Deposition

the material erosion moves; may consist of pieces of rock or soil or remains of plants and animals

Sediment

the moving water carries particles with it

Runoff

water, glacial, wind, and wave

Types of erosion

waterfalls, flood plains, meanders, oxbow lakes,

Landforms due to water erosion

Alluvial fans, delts

Landforms due to water deposition

Horn, cirque, U-shaped valley, arete

Landforms due to glacial erosion

Fiord, glacial lake, Morain, drumlin, kettle

Landforms due to glacial deposition

vegetation, amount of rain, type of soil, the shape of the land, land's use

Contributions to runoff

flood plains, meanders, oxbow lakes

Landforms due to water erosion

wave-cut cliffs, headlands, sea caves, sea arches, sea stacks

Landforms due to waves erosion

a region in which a layer of limestone close to the surface creates deep valleys, caverns, and sinkholes

Karst topography

gullies

rills form...

streams

gullies form...

rivers

streams form...

carried through the air

movement of fine particles

skip or bounce

movement of medium particles

slide or roll

movement of large particles

a record of the geologic event and evolution of life forms as shown in the fossil record

Geologic time scale

three long units of time geologists use to divide the time between Precambrian times and the present

Era

the subdivisions of geologic time for eras

Period

the long span of time that began geologic time. It covers 88% of Earth's history and ended 542 myo. Few fossils survived from this time period

Precambrian time