Psychology - cognitive

S-R foundations

Stimulus Response foundations. foundational behavioral framework that explains learning as a direct, observable connection between an external environmental event (stimulus) and a behavior (response).

Objective measurement

cognitive approach refers to the collection of data that is not influenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudices, focusing instead on observable and quantifiable behaviors or physiological responses

Reductionism

the practice of breaking down complex human mental processes (such as memory, thinking, or language) into simpler, isolated, and more manageable components to study them scientifically

Taste aversion

a learned, adaptive response where an individual develops a strong dislike and avoidance of a specific food or taste after experiencing illness or nausea shortly after consuming it

Conditioned emotional response

a specific form of associative learning where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with an emotionally charged event (often unpleasant or traumatic), resulting in an automatic, involuntary emotional reaction to that stimulus.

Simple phobia

an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense, irrational, and persistent fear of a specific, circumscribed object, activity, or situation that poses little to no actual danger

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences (positive outcomes) are more likely to be repeated in the future, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated

Consequences

the rewards or punishments an individual expects to receive if they imitate an observed behavior

Contiguity

close timing between two stimuli (or a stimulus and response) that allows a learned association to form

Schedules of Reinforcement (fixed)

operant conditioning where a behavior is rewarded only after a specific, predictable, and unchanging set of criteria is met. These schedules are used to strengthen or maintain learned behaviors over time

Schedules of Reinforcement (variable)

partial reinforcement rules where reinforcement is delivered unpredictably, either based on time or number of responses. variable schedules prevent the subject from predicting when a reward will occur, resulting in high rates of responding and high resistance to extinction

Punishment

a consequence that follows a behavior and reduces the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future

Positive punishment

Decreasing behavior by adding an unpleasant/aversive stimulus immediately after an undesired behavior occurs (e.g., getting a detention, receiving a reprimand)

Negative Punishment

Decreasing behavior by removing a pleasant/valued stimulus following an undesired behavior (e.g., losing phone privileges, paying a fine)

Puzzle box

an apparatus designed by Thorndike in which an animal (typically a cat) is placed inside and must learn to operate a mechanism to escape and receive a food reward. Through trial and error, the animal gradually reduces escape time

Radical behaviourism

Skinner's position that all behaviour — including thoughts and emotions — can be fully explained by environmental reinforcement and punishment, rejecting any reference to internal mental states as unnecessary or unscientific.

O’C’ chamber

a laboratory apparatus developed by B.F. Skinner to study behavior by systematically controlling the environment. It is a controlled, often sound-attenuating, box usually containing a lever, key, or button that a small animal (such as a rat or pigeon) can manipulate to receive a food reward or avoid an aversive stimulus (like an electric shock)

S-O-R foundations

a foundational framework in psychology that posits environmental stimuli (S) affect an organism's internal processes (O), which in turn influence the behavioral response (R)

Modelling

the process by which an individual learns new behaviours by observing and imitating another person (the model), without requiring direct reinforcement or conditioning. Proposed by Bandura

Human agency

capacity of individuals to act deliberately, make choices, and exert control over their own thought processes, motivation, and behavior

Reciprocal determinism

Bandura's theory that behaviour, personal/cognitive factors, and the environment all continuously influence one another in a dynamic, bidirectional relationship — rather than behaviour being shaped by environment alone

Idiographic nature

refers to an approach to understanding behaviour that focuses on the unique, individual experience of a person, rather than seeking universal laws or generalisations that apply to all people

Cognitive dissonance

the mental discomfort experienced when a person holds two conflicting beliefs or when their actions don't align with their beliefs

Cross sectional design

A type of study that collects data from participants at a single point in time. It

is often used to compare different groups of people or variables at a specific

moment, providing a snapshot of their behaviour.

i) modelling

The observer watches a model perform a behaviour. For learning to occur, the observer must attend to the model and retain a mental representation of the behaviour observed

ii) frustration-aggression activation

The observer becomes motivated to reproduce the behaviour, often triggered by an emotional or situational cue.

“telling the kids that they are unable to touch the fancy toys because its for special kids’’

iii) delayed imitation

The observed behaviour is reproduced at a later point in time, demonstrating that it was stored cognitively rather than immediately acted upon. This is significant because it proves that learning can occur without immediate reinforcement or direct experience

Observational method

a non-experimental research technique used to study mental processes—such as attention, memory, and thinking—by systematically observing, recording, and analyzing observable behaviors in naturalistic or controlled settings

behavioural checklist

Structured checklists that define, identify, and measure specific behavioral outcomes of mental processes. To make the study of internal mental processes (cognition) scientific by focusing on observable indicators

IRR correlation

a measure of consistency used to determine how similarly different researchers or observers collect data, ensuring that results are not biased by a single person's interpretation. eg. ensuring consistency in observational studies