approaches glossary

empiricism

the view that all our knowledge comes from experience

objective

not influenced by personal feelings or opinions

subjective

influenced by personal feelings or opinions

reliability

the degree to which a study can be depended upon to be accurate

replication

the repetition of a scientific experiment to obtain a consistent result

substance dualism

the mind and brain are two separate substances

scientific method

the use of investigative methods that are objective, systemic and replicable

introspection

the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.

id

pleasure principle, present from birth, unconscious

ego

reality principle, develops form 18m-3yrs

superego

morality principle, 3-6yrs, conscious and unconscious.

defence mechanisms

psychological strategies used by ego to protect itself from negative emotions like anxiety/stress

repression

mind unconsciously blocks/buries unacceptable thoughts, impulses or traumatic memories to avoid anxiety/guilt

denial

when a person refuses to acknowledge reality or facts to protect themselves from anxiety, pain or discomfort.

displacement

unconscious defence mechanism where someone redirects their feelings, like anger or frustration, onto something that is less threatening/more convenient

psychosexual stages

Freud’s 5 developmental stages. At each stage, a child experiences a conflict, the outcome of which affects the future.

classical conditioning

learning by association - occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together

unconditioned stimulus

the thing that produces an unconditioned response

unconditioned respones

the natural response to the unconditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that doesn’t produce a response yet

conditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus once paired with the unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response

response to the conditioned stimulus, formerly the unconditioned stimulus.

operant conditioning

a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped by consequences

positive reinforcement

a stimulus that increases the chance of behaviour being repeated because it is pleasurable

negative reinforcement

a stimulus that increases the chance of behaviour being repeated because it removes something negative

punishment

a stimulus that decreases the chance of a behaviour being repeated because the overall experience is unpleasant.

vicarious reinforcement

reinforcement that is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.

determinism

the view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external factors rather than free will

nature

the aspects of behaviour that are innate and inherited.

nurture

aspects of behaviour that are acquired through experience

reductionism

an approach that explains human behaviour by breaking it down into simpler parts.

imitation

copying the behaviour of others

identification

when an observer associates themself with a role model and wants to be like them

mediational processes

cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

reciprocal determinism

a person’s behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment

free will

the notion that humans can make their own decisions and are not determined by internal biological and external factors

self actualisation

the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of

congruence

the aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self concept and the ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match

conditions of worth

when a parent places limits or boundaries on the love of their children

schema

a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. developed from experience

inference

a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning

genotype

the particular set of genes that a person possesses

phenotype

the characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment

concordance rates

a measure of similarity between two individuals on a given trait

neurochemistry

the chemicals that assist in the acitivity of transmission throughout the nervous system

case study

a type of research method that involves an in-depth study of an individual

parapraxis (freudian slip)

an error in speech/memory/physical action that reveals unconscious thoughts, desires or feelings