media audiences notes exam 1

How does the Shannon & Weaver model describe human communication?

Describes information-based communication between a source and a receiver. Includes a source, a transmitter, a channel, a receiver, and a destination.

What are information-based audiences?

audiences focus on what is actually said

What are meaning-based audiences?

audiences emphasize feedback and how the message is received.

How does the Constructivist view define audiences as both 'situated' and 'contingent'?

Audiences are abstract, not real; people 'perform' behaviors based on setting, influenced by context and social environment.

What is 'Audience as outcome'?

Media is powerful and can promote mob or antisocial behavior, influencing audiences strongly.

What is 'Audience as mass'?

Media can target broad demographics, treating audiences as a large, sellable group.

What is 'Audience as agent'?

Audience members have choices in media consumption, following uses and gratifications.

How were 'crowds' defined in the 19th century?

Often working-class, exhibiting routinized but unruly behavior, evolving into 'mobs' or carnival crowds. Defined by elites.

What did Le Bon say about the 'psychology of a crowd'?

People in large crowds lose individuality, behave collectively, act instinctually rather than rationally, justifying authorities' actions to disperse crowds.

What is Structuration Theory?

The tension between structure and agency. Structures create norms, but individuals still have some freedom.

How can structures be both 'constraining' and 'enabling'?

Structures impose obligations but provide benefits when followed (e.g., college leads to a better job).

What is agency in communication?

Individuals act reflexively, making choices based on past experiences but cannot foresee all consequences.

What is hegemony?

Political elites generate consensus through social institutions like media, schools, and churches.

Why were elites anxious during the American Industrial Revolution?

They feared 'crowds' as dangerous and worried movies could incite mob behavior among immigrants and common folk.

What did Charles Horton Cooley say about communication?

Communication develops human relations through symbols, gestures, and tone, shaping self-identity.

Why did Cooley believe newspapers could be harmful?

They could lead to superficial understanding of complex issues.

Why did Munsterberg believe motion pictures were dangerous?

He feared audiences couldn't separate fiction from reality, making them susceptible to antisocial behavior.

How did moral and media panics contribute to the Media Effects Paradigm?

Media research emerged from concerns that new media increased crime and violence during societal and technological changes.

What is Tonnies' 'mass society theory'?

Media weakens community bonds (Gemeinschaft) and isolates individuals in modern society (Gesellschaft).

What did the Payne Studies find about movies and antisocial behavior?

No conclusive link, but some scholars claimed weak effects. The study aimed to promote reading.

How did the 'War of the Worlds' broadcast shape media effects research?

It was exaggerated by newspapers to discredit radio, portraying media as having direct influence.

What did Carl Hovland's research say about persuasion?

Source credibility influences short-term persuasion; weak fear appeals work better than strong ones; people seek consistency in beliefs.

What is cognitive dissonance?

The discomfort from conflicting beliefs, leading individuals to rationalize behaviors.

What are the two ways humans process persuasive messages according to the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

1. Central processing: Focus on message details, motivated listeners. 2. Peripheral processing: Low motivation, relying on cues like attractiveness or background music.

What did The People's Choice study reveal about media’s influence on voting?

Media had little impact; voting choices were predictable based on demographics.

What is the 'two-step flow' process of persuasion?

Media messages influence 'opinion leaders,' who then influence the broader public.

Is there a proven link between violent video games and violent behavior?

Research is inconclusive, with weak effects; video games are blamed due to their novelty.

What did the Surgeon General's Report conclude about TV and violence?

Social Learning Theory (Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment) showed children imitated observed behaviors.

What do Social Learning Theory and Cultivation Theory suggest about media influence?

TV shapes audience perceptions of reality, with long-term media exposure affecting worldviews.

How is an audience an 'artifact of social processes'?

Public opinion polls and audience ratings define audiences through institutional research.

How do institutions actively construct audiences?

Through research methodologies by governments, universities, businesses, and other institutions.

How does Graber define 'public opinion'?

A group consensus on public issues, shaped through discussion and communication.

What is Doxa?

opinion

What is Epistome?

knowledge

What did Habermas say about the 'representative public sphere'?

Monarchs and feudal lords controlled public discourse before the rise of an independent public.

What was the 'bourgeois public sphere' of the 18th century?

A rising middle class influenced public opinion in coffeehouses and salons, separate from church or monarchy.

What are the pros and cons of straw polls?

Unscientific but useful.

What are the pros and cons of systematic surveys?

More scientific, using probability sampling for accuracy.

What does the Spiral of Silence Theory suggest?

People avoid social isolation by adjusting their opinions based on perceived majority views.

Do undecided voters 'jump on the bandwagon'?

Often, but some shift to underdog candidates as well.

How do 'selective attention' and 'illusory pattern perception' relate to conspiracy theories?

People seek evidence to confirm beliefs; social media algorithms reinforce filter bubbles.

What is 'political economy'?

The study of how economic and political systems interact.

What is the 'political economy of communication'?

Examines how media ownership, production, and distribution are shaped by economic and political forces.

Why are viewers referred to as the 'commodity audience'?

Media companies sell audience attention to advertisers, making viewers the 'product' that is bought and sold in the advertising market.

How do historical shifts influence Political Economy Theory?

Changes in media ownership and regulation affect power dynamics.

How do economic structures influence Political Economy Theory?

Capitalism and market forces shape media production.

How do moral philosophy influence Political Economy Theory?

Ethical concerns about media control and influence over society.

What is the 'toothpicks and trees' analogy of media audiences?

Media audiences seem large and unified when viewed from a distance. Upon closer inspection, they are individuals with unique preferences and behaviors.

What is a taxonomic collective?

A group categorized based on shared traits but lacking direct interaction or social cohesion.

How is an audience 'operationalized'?

Researchers define and measure an audience using specific criteria like demographics, behaviors, or media consumption patterns.

How is a Nielsen sample constructed?

Multistage cluster sampling: Selecting smaller groups (clusters) from a larger population in multiple steps. Stratified sampling: Dividing the population into subgroups (strata) and sampling proportionally from each.

What are demographics?

Measurable characteristics like age, gender, income, and education.

What are psychographics?

Psychological traits, interests, values, and lifestyle preferences.

What is engagement TV?

Audience interaction with media content, such as likes, shares, or comments.

What is social TV?

Real-time audience participation in TV discussions via social media.