PSYCHOLOGY - issues and debates

what is universality

that findings can be applied to anyone regardless of of time period or culture.

what are the two forms of gender bias

alpha and beta

what is alpha bias

psychological research that exaggerates differences that are seen an unchangeable

these can favour or go against women in terms of men 

what example of alpha bias is there in a research context

Freud (1905) theory of psychosexual development

he describes a male child’s identification with the father role as stronger than a girls with her mother, suggesting that men have a stronger superego and so a stronger morality 

Wilson (1994) 

the reason that 95% of bank managers, company directors, judges, and university professors are men is because men are more competitive and dominant (biologically predisposed to be)

give an example of alpha bias

evolutionary

• men tend to be dominant

• women have more parental investment

• why men are more likely to commit adultery

argued in modern discussions as used to exaggerate differences that shouldn’t be considered

what examples of alpha bias favour women

Chodorow (1968) suggested that mother-daughter connections are stronger than mother- sons because of biological similarities 

and as a result of this stronger connection women develop more empathy and ability to bond than men in later life

what is beta bias

psychological research that minimizes or ignores differences between genders.

give an examples of beta bias

research into fight or flight was assumed to be the same in men and women despite most being conducted on maple Ps/animals as the female behaviour is effected by hormonal changes.

Taylor et al (2000) countered this as she presented the tend and befriend response. As love hormone - oxytocin is released by women as a stress response - different to men

Kohlberg - evaluated peoples moral reasoning through a series of dilemmas, primarily using male subjects. His findings were later criticized for reflecting a male-centric view of morality, leading to an underrepresentation of female perspectives.

as when women scored differently to men, he suggested that men were morally superior to women 

what is androcentrism

The practice of placing male experiences at the centre of understanding human behaviour

men lead psychology - American Psychology Association published top 100 most influential psychologists of the 20th century - only 6 were women.

what did Loring and Powell (1988) find

in diagnosis of schizophrenia 56% were diagnosed when patient was male/gender unknown as apposed to the 20% when they were female. 

Female psychiatrists were also less effected by this bias 

suggesting that both gender of patient and doctor influences the result of a diagnosis

evaluate gender bias

differences seen as fixed - not always 

• COUNTERPOINT -differences in the brain are fixed

sexism in research 

gender bias research 

understanding bias

real life implications - schizophrenia

COUNTERPOINT feminist psychology 

limitations of gender bias

P - differences are seen as fixed

E - Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) - found that girls have a superior verbal ability while boys excel in spatial task. these differences were concluded to be ‘hardwired’ into their brains. accepted as facts, but may be influenced as fits predetermined gender stereotypes - COUNTERPOINT

P - promotes sexism in research

E - Murphy et al (2014) - majority of psychology undergrads are women, but lecturers and researchers are predominantly male.

E - this could lead to bias in teaching as well as subjective studies where the investigator effects carry gender biases.

P - gender biased research

E - meta analysis - 2018 - 1000 articles relating to gender bias over 8 years. found that gender bias is funded less and published less.

E - so fewer researchers are aware of its place in psychology, and it its not regard ed as highly as other biases, eg cultural bias.

counterpoints to gender bias 

P - still important to study gender differences in the brain,

E - 2014 study suggests that stereotype that women are better at multitasking is correct. as women’s brain have better communication between LH and RH.

E - so there are biological differences, but not so overwhelming that they determine behaviours totally.

what is culture bias 

The tendency to interpret human behavior through the lens of one's own cultural norms.

can also include the belief in one cultures superiority 

what is cultural relativism

The principle that a person's beliefs and activities should be understood based on their own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another culture.

what is ethnocentrism 

form of culture bias - belief in one culture’s superiority

what is the etic vs emic approach

etic - looking at behaviour from outside the culture to identify universal behaviours

emic - from inside the culture to identify behaviours specific to that culture

what are culture bound syndromes

Psychological disorders or symptoms that are specific to a particular cultural context, often influenced by cultural beliefs, practices, and social norms.

individualist vs collectivist cultures

Individualist cultures -  prioritize personal goals and autonomy

collectivist cultures - emphasize group goals and social harmony

what is meant by imposed etic

The practice of applying theories or concepts developed in one culture to another culture ignoring cultural differences.

what is ethnography

A qualitative research method used to study cultures through detailed observations and interactions, often involving immersion within the community being studied.

what is the acronym to describe the normal cultural bias in psychology research 

W - westernised

E - educated 

I - industrialised 

R - rich 

D - democratic 

evaluate cultural bias

lim

stregn

what is the free will determinism debate

do we have free will or do set internal/external influences determine what we do/who we are

what are the two branches of determinism

hard and soft

soft determinism

James (1890)

argued that free will and determinism coexist

that we still have free will, but other factors contribute to our behaviour

hard determinism

or fatalism

that it is possible to identify causes for all human behaviour

so every action is dictated by internal and external factors

what are the three types of determinism

biological 

environmental 

psychic

biological determinism

influence of ANS on the stress response, or genes on mental health.

role of biological make up that determines a persons traits/behaviour

environmental determinism

B.F. Skinner -

all behaviour was a result of conditioning

free will is and illusion

psychic determinism

Freud - behaviour is determined by repressed conflict in childhood that create biological drives and instincts that dictate ‘free will’

how can determinism be applied to the cognitive approach

explanation for depression - cognitive distortions resulting from genetic predisposition and environmental influences.

evaluate free will and determinism

practical value 

research evidence - COUNTERPOINT 

the law 

do we want it 

limitations

P  - Practical value 

E - 

strengths

nature nurture a01

evaluate nature nurture

strengths of nature nurture

limitations of nature nurture

what is holism

Holism is the concept in psychology that emphasizes viewing the individual as a whole, rather than focusing solely on specific parts or aspects of their experiences, behaviours, or personality. It suggests that understanding a person requires considering all factors, including biological, psychological, and social influences.

what is reductionism

what is parsimony

what are the two types of reductionism

environmental reductionism

biological reductionism

what are the 6 levels to explain behaviour outlined in the reductionist approach

what is the reductionism hierarchy (examples)

social and cultural explanations - Bartiett schema theory

Psychological explanations - miller ( capacity of STM) Peterson (duration of STM

biological - Maguire study - taxi drivers and/or COD

evaluate holism and reductionism debate

strengths of the holism and reductionism debate

limitations of the holism and reductionism debate