wk 2_ greek

The “Language Question” (Glossiko ζήτημα)

A major 19th–20th century debate between demotic (spoken Greek) and katharevousa (purified Greek) — affecting education, literature, and translation policy until 1976.

Diglossia in Greece

Coexistence of two linguistic forms (demotic and katharevousa); deeply politicized and central to Greek identity and translation debates.

Early Greek Attitude to Translation

Ancient Greeks saw little need for translation; Greek was the lingua franca of the Mediterranean. Translation only gained importance in the Byzantine and modern periods.

Byzantine Translation Practices

Legal texts translated from Latin to Greek in law schools of Beirut and Constantinople. Antikinsores (vice-censors) acted as translators and teachers, introducing Greek legal terminology.

“Interpreting Kata Poda”

Byzantine pedagogical method meaning “on foot” — interpretive, analytical translation from Latin into Greek to ensure comprehension; not word-for-word.

Early Greek Translation Theory

First systematic discussions appear in the 16th–18th centuries (Sofianos, Vulgaris, Katartzis), focusing on education, natural expression, and cultural modernization.

Nikolaos Sofianos (16th century)**

First to discuss the “how and why” of translation in Greek. Advocated naturalness and readability, linking translation to national education.

Evgenios Vulgaris (1768)**

Emphasized translation into the current idiom of the people; stressed collaboration with native speakers and use of explanatory notes — early recognition of editing and paratext.

Dimitrios Katartzis (c. 1730–1807)**

First to formulate a Greek theory of translation — debated fidelity vs. readability; proposed adapting to readers’ needs rather than strict scholarly literalism.

Intralingual Translation in Greece

Central to Greek translation history: rendering ancient Greek into modern Greek to demonstrate linguistic continuity and cultural vitality.

Bible Translation Controversy

19th-century debate over translating the Bible into modern Greek. Opponents (Economos) saw it as heretical; supporters (Vamvas) viewed accessibility as moral and educational duty.

Evangelika (Gospel Riots, 1901)**

Violent reaction to Alexandros Pallis’s modern Greek Gospel translation; revealed how translation intersected with national identity and religious authority.

Orestiaka Riots (1903)**

Protests following performance of Aeschylus in demotic translation — proof that translation was politically charged in modern Greece.

Alexandros Pallis (1851–1935)**

Major figure of the demotic movement; translated Homer, Euripides, Shakespeare, and Kant into demotic Greek; his Iliad seen as a revolutionary folk-language translation.

Kazantzakis and Kakridis’ Homer Translation (1962)**

Rendered Homer into modern demotic Greek using rhythms from folk songs — an accessible yet self-consciously temporary translation.

Manolis Triandafyllidis and Education Reform

Advocated translation of ancient texts into demotic Greek to renew national culture and connect citizens to their heritage.

Translation as National Rejuvenation

Translating ancient Greek texts was seen as both educational and nation-building, reinforcing cultural continuity and linguistic unity.

Greek Enlightenment (18th century)**

Period of translation activity aiming to “educate the nation” and transfer European knowledge to Greece — often via French intermediaries.

Multilingual Influence in Early Modern Greece

Works were translated from Latin, Arabic, French, German, Russian, Italian, and others — focusing on philosophy, science, and education.

French Cultural Dominance in Greek Translation

From 17th to early 20th century, most translations into Greek were mediated through French, shaping Greek literary and intellectual orientation.

Rise of English in Translation (Post-1944)**

English replaced French as dominant source language after WWII due to Anglo-American influence in education and politics.

Quantitative Growth of Translations

From 1 book in 16th century to over 13,000 (1950–1990). One-third of Greek publications today are translations.

Genre Trends in Translation

Shift from theatre (18th c.) → novels (19th c.) → poetry (20th c.); mirrors European literary developments.

Role of Translators as Cultural Agents

Greek translators were not neutral mediators but nation-builders, educators, and reformers shaping collective identity through language choice.

Translation as Education and Modernization

Central to national awakening — a means of transferring European Enlightenment ideas and affirming Greek linguistic heritage.

Greek Translation Theory vs. Western Equivalents

Preoccupied less with equivalence and more with language politics, accessibility, and national ideology — blending translation with social re

Translation and National Identity

In Greece, translation was inseparable from language politics. Translating ancient or sacred texts into demotic Greek became a statement of national and cultural identity, not just a linguistic act.

Translation as a Political Act

Each choice between demotic and katharevousa represented a political position. Translators were agents of ideology, showing that translation is never neutral.

Intralingual Translation and Jakobson

The Greek case exemplifies Jakobson’s intralingual translation—rewording within the same language—to bridge classical and modern forms, reinforcing cultural continuity.

Translation as Modernization

Greek translators of the Enlightenment viewed translation as a means of importing European scientific and philosophical progress, aligning with the functional purpose emphasized by Skopos theory.

Translator’s Agency in Greece

Figures like Pallis, Kazantzakis, and Vamvas acted as cultural reformers, embodying the modern notion of the translator as active co-author and ideologue.

The Fidelity vs. Readability Debate

Echoing Cicero and Dryden, Greek translators argued whether to preserve the sanctity of ancient Greek texts (fidelity) or render them accessible to the modern reader (sense-for-sense).

Vamvas vs. Economos — a Case Study in Translatability

Vamvas supported intelligibility and education; Economos opposed translation of the Bible, claiming modern Greek debased sacred meaning. This foreshadows debates on untranslatability and sacred text fidelity.

Evangelika and Orestiaka Riots

Violent reactions to modern-language translations illustrate cultural resistance to linguistic democratization — translation as a threat to traditional authority.

Diglossia and Translation Strategy

Translators navigated between two language codes (demotic/katharevousa), paralleling modern decisions between domestication (readable) and foreignization (archaic or elitist).

Pallis’s Demotic Iliad and Venuti’s Foreignization

Pallis’s demotic translation used folk rhythms to reclaim Homer for the people — a politically “foreignizing” move against elitist norms, akin to Venuti’s call for visibility of the translator.

Greek Enlightenment and Skopos Theory

Translators worked toward a purpose (skopos) — educating Greeks, spreading rationalism, and promoting linguistic unity — showing early functionalist orientation.

Translation as Cultural Repatriation

Rendering Greek classics into modern idiom was seen as “bringing the heritage home,” reappropriating ancient culture through the living vernacular.

Translation and Linguistic Purism

The katharevousa movement reveals prescriptive attitudes toward translation, akin to modern debates on standardization and linguistic elitism.

Sofianos and the Educational Function of Translation

His insistence on clarity and naturalness prefigures communicative approaches (Nida’s dynamic equivalence), prioritizing the reader’s understanding over formal imitation.

Vulgaris and Paratextual Commentary

His annotated translations anticipated paratextual theory (Genette): commentary as a space where translators negotiate meaning, equivalence, and ideology.

Katartzis and Early Functional Equivalence

His rejection of “scholarly literalism” anticipates functional equivalence — meaning takes precedence over word-level fidelity.

Translation as Linguistic Revival

Translating ancient texts into demotic Greek functioned as a regenerative act—reviving not only texts but the nation’s linguistic and cultural vitality.

Translation as Cultural Continuity

Intralingual translation maintained the “living chain” between classical and modern Greek, exemplifying translation as a continuum of cultural identity.

Postcolonial Parallels in Greek Translation

Although not colonized in the Western sense, Greece’s linguistic purism vs. vernacularism reflects postcolonial tensions — between imported norms and native expression.

Translation as Nation-Building

From the Greek Enlightenment to the 20th century, translation served as an instrument of national formation — creating a collective voice through linguistic reform.

Translator Visibility in Greek History

Greek translators were public intellectuals. Their prominence anticipates Venuti’s argument that translation is not transparent but culturally and politically visible.

Translation and the Cultural Turn

The Greek case illustrates the Cultural Turn avant la lettre: translation as embedded in ideology, education, and identity politics rather than merely linguistic equivalence.

Bilingual Editions and Reader Guidance

Vulgaris’s bilingual translations with notes demonstrate early awareness of reader-oriented translation — guiding comprehension through contextualization.

Translation as Mediation Between Temporalities

Translating ancient into modern Greek bridged time periods, showing translation as temporal mediation — connecting past grandeur to present realities.

Greek Case and Descriptive Translation Studies

The evolution from religious and classical fidelity to modern readability mirrors Toury’s idea of shifting norms in translation practice over