History Fall Final

Agricultural Revolution

A significant change in human history that involved the transition from foraging to farming.

Cognitive Revolution

A major evolutionary shift in human cognition and behavior that occurred approximately 70,000 years ago.

Culture

A set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization, or group.

Domesticate

To tame and breed animals or cultivate plants for human use.

Neolithic

The last part of the Stone Age, marked by the development of agriculture and the use of tools.

• Foragers lived in small bands (30–200 members)

• Only domesticated animals were dogs (c. 15000BCE)

• Hunter-gatherers spend most of their time gathering, not hunting

• Varied diets, limited disease, short “work” week

•  Plenty of dangers in daily life

“Most knowledgeable and skillful people in history at the individual level”—Harari

Paleolithic

The era of prehistory characterized by the use of chipped stone tools and hunting-gathering societies.

-  Marked by the use of stone tools dating back to ~2.5 million years ago
- Series of “ice ages” over this period
- Homo sapiens begin to appear
~300,000 years ago
-  “Out of Africa” theory (~50,000 years
ago)
-  Lived alongside Neanderthalensis
until ~30,000 years ago
-  Humans relied on foraging & hunting

Surplus

An amount produced that is greater than what is needed; essential for the development of complex societies.

Cuneiform

A system of writing first developed by the Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia.

Civilization

A complex human society characterized by the development of cities, social stratification, and a governing body.

Patriarchal

A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property.

Empire

A major political unit in which a number of different peoples or countries are controlled by a single ruler or government.

Standard of Ur

An ancient Sumerian artifact that illustrates aspects of war and peace in the civilization.

Hammurabi’s Code

One of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world, it established laws and justice under King Hammurabi of Babylon.

unfair but think its eye for an eye

Hammurabi was the king of Babylon (r. 1792–1750 BCE) ❏ Famous for codifying a system of law that was implemented across the newly conquered territories of his empire ❏ Empire-wide system of justice extended the power of the central government by having king-appointed officials rule on local affairs

Uruk

An important city in ancient Mesopotamia known for its monumental architecture and significance in early urban development.

Specialization / Divisions of labor

The allocation of different tasks to different people in a society, leading to increased efficiency and productivity.

Claim testing

The process of evaluating the validity of a statement or claim based on evidence and reasoning.

Intuition; Logic; Authority; Evidence

Contextualization

Placing events, ideas, or developments within a relevant historical context to understand their significance.

Broad vs. narrow context

Fertile Crescent

A historical region in the Middle East known for its rich soils and favorable conditions for agriculture.

Social hierarchy

A system of ranking individuals within a society based on wealth, power, or social status.

Human migration

The movement of people from one place to another, often for the purpose of settling in a new location.

Monumental architecture

Large constructed structures often associated with significant political, religious, or cultural purpose in ancient societies.

ziggurat

❏ Focus of economic power and religious authority = Center of city life ❏ Associated with one of more gods (below dedicated to Anu)

Trap of sedentism

The phenomenon where societies become dependent on sedentary agriculture, potentially leading to social complexities and challenges.

Garden of Eden

As these groups settled in these abundant areas, they may have become increasingly sedentary. Over time, their reliance on local resources would have deepened. For example, they might have started to manage and exploit certain wild species, particularly plants or animals, leading to a situation where they were getting more food from the environment than they might have in a more mobile foraging lifestyle.

• This is where the trap comes in: staying in one place and exploiting these resources may have seemed like a good idea at first, but eventually it would have led to overexploitation. Once people began to rely more and more on a limited set of resources (like a particular type of wild grain or a specific animal), they might have found that they needed to domesticate these species to keep up with demand.

• Essentially, sedentary living can create a situation where humans end up needing to invest more labor to maintain a steady food supply, thus pushing them toward agriculture. Farming becomes a necessity, even if it wasn't part of the original plan.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains

Nomadic

living the life of a nomad; wandering.

Sargon

Akkadian, sargon of akkad

He is sometimes identified as the first person in recorded history to rule over an empire. his ability to successfully conquer and unify all of Mesopotamia as well as many kingdoms outside of the region. As a result, he is known as one of the first people in recorded history to rule over an empire.

centralized government

A centralized government (also united government) is one in which both executive and legislative power is concentrated centrally at the higher level as opposed to it being more distributed at various lower level governments.

City-state

a political system consisting of an independent city having sovereignty over contiguous territory and serving as a centre and leader of political, economic, and cultural life.

A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territor

government

the governing body of a nation, state, or community.

Symbolic language

human ability to speak of entities that do not exist

Mesopotamia

Iraq Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent.

state

large than a city state
Sovereignty: A state may be part of a larger country (like California is part of the U.S.),

Governance: In a state, governance is usually divided into different levels (local government

pastoralist

Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds.

Agrarian

relating to cultivated land or the cultivation of land.

Periodization

The process of dividing history into distinct periods for easier analysis.

Barbarian

A term used by ancient civilizations to describe people who were considered uncivilized or outside their cultural norms.

Hammurabi

• The king of Babylon, famous for creating one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes.

Dynasty

A sequence of rulers from the same family or lineage.

Cuneiform tablet

Ancient clay tablets inscribed with the earliest form of writing, developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia.

Temple worshipper

People STATUES who engaged in religious rituals and worship at temples, often led by priests in ancient societies.

Enheduanna

The first known female writer in history, a high priestess of the moon god Nanna in ancient Sumer. sargons daughter

beginnings of agriculture

The transition from hunting-gathering to farming and domestication of animals, marking the start of agrarian societies.

causes

Political, innovation, economic, cultural, environmental, and social.

How did the Agricultural Revolution change how humans lived?

It led to settled communities, the development of cities, and significant changes in social structures and economies. Specialized labor

What were the positive and negative consequences of humanity’s gradual shift to farming from foraging?

Positive - advanced technology, specialization of labor, food production

Negative - hierarchical issues, more labor, environmental degradation, increased warfare.

Coercion theory

state developed primarily through the use of force and coercion.

According to this theory, rulers or elites used violence or the threat of violence to compel individuals to form organized societies and submit to centralized control.

What is the Voluntary Theory of the state?

the state emerged through a social contract, with individuals voluntarily coming together to form a society for mutual benefit. People agreed to create governing institutions to protect their rights and maintain social order.

Are the Coercion Theory and the Voluntary Theory mutually exclusive?

Not necessarily. While they present different views on the origins of the state, they are not entirely mutually exclusive. In practice, elements of both theories could have played a role in the development of states, with coercion and voluntary agreements potentially coexisting in different historical contexts.

What arguments support the Coercion Theory of the state?

• Historical evidence: Many early states arose through conquest or the use of force, with rulers consolidating power through violence.

• Social inequality: States often serve the interests of elites, suggesting that coercion helped secure the dominance of rulers over subordinate groups.

• Conflict: The theory aligns with the idea that states form in response to external threats, requiring centralized control and the use of force.

What arguments support the Voluntary Theory of the state?

• Social contract: Philosophers like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau argue that individuals consent to be governed to secure their rights, avoid anarchy, and promote collective welfare.

• Cooperation for mutual benefit: The theory suggests that states emerged as an agreement to better protect property, create laws, and resolve disputes peacefully.

• Gradual development: Rather than arising from violence, the state could have evolved gradually as individuals came to recognize the benefits of collective governance.

What are potential criticisms of the Coercion Theory?

• It overlooks the possibility of voluntary cooperation and mutual agreement among individuals.

• It assumes that violence and coercion are the primary motivators for state formation, without accounting for more peaceful methods of social organization.

• It risks simplifying complex historical processes by focusing too heavily on force.

What are potential criticisms of the Voluntary Theory?

• It assumes that individuals voluntarily agreed to form a state, but historical evidence suggests that most early states arose through conquest or domination.

• It underestimates the role of coercion in creating and maintaining states.

• It idealizes the concept of the social contract, which may not have been a genuine historical phenomenon but rather a theoretical construct.

Agrarian Society

• Storage of surplus food

• Development of a priestly class; a state religion based on gods/goddesses

• Central rule (such as a king, pharaoh, or emperor)

• Specialized jobs

• Social rank based on wealth, ancestry, and occupation

• Increased trade

• Systems of writing or recording information; increased collective learning

• Armies and increased warfare

• Monumental public architecture (temples, pyramids)

• More inequality between men and women; male-dominated traditions

 How did surplus production contribute to the rise and development of civilizations?

Surplus production—producing more food or resources than immediately needed—was a key factor in the development of early civilizations. It had several important effects:

• Economic Impact:

  • Surplus food allowed for trade and the accumulation of wealth, fostering economic specialization. With food surpluses, some people could focus on crafts, trade, or administration instead of agriculture, leading to a more diversified economy.

  • Labor division: Surpluses enabled people to specialize in different trades and professions, which led to technological advancements and more complex economies.

• Social Impact:

  • Surpluses led to population growth, as more people could be supported by the increased food production. This created larger, more permanent settlements and the formation of cities.

  • The availability of surplus resources helped social stratification, as elites could control the distribution of food and wealth, creating class divisions (e.g., ruling classes, priests, merchants, laborers).

  • Leisure time: Surplus allowed for the development of culture, art, and intellectual activities, as not everyone needed to focus solely on food production.

• Political Impact:

  • Surpluses gave rise to centralized governance, as rulers needed to organize the distribution of resources, settle disputes, and protect the surplus from theft or external threats.

  • The control of surplus production often led to the rise of organized states, as elites or rulers controlled the distribution of food and other resources, consolidating power and enforcing social order.

  • Surplus helped finance military expansion and defense, as resources could be stockpiled to support large armies or used to pay for soldiers.

Mesopotamia and Geography

Tigris and Euphrates rivers, played a pivotal role in the development of agriculture and agrarian societies, leading to the rise of complex civilizations by providing fertile land for farming through regular flooding, which in turn fostered the creation of distinct political, religious, economic, and social structures due to the need for coordinated water management and resource distribution across city-states along the riverbanks. 

Key points about Mesopotamia's geography and its impact on civilization:

• Fertile Crescent and River Systems:

• The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flowed through the fertile crescent, creating rich alluvial plains ideal for agriculture, allowing early farmers to produce surplus crops and support larger populations. 

• Irrigation Systems:

• The unpredictable flooding patterns of the rivers necessitated the development of sophisticated irrigation systems, which required collaboration and centralized authority to manage water distribution, leading to the formation of complex political structures. 

• City-States:

• Due to the fertile river valleys, cities emerged along the banks of the rivers, often developing into independent city-states that competed for resources and land, fostering political fragmentation and conflict. 

• Trade Routes:

• The rivers also provided natural trade routes, facilitating the exchange of goods between Mesopotamia and other regions, contributing to economic development. 

• Religious Beliefs:

• The unpredictable nature of the rivers and their dependence on them for survival likely influenced Mesopotamian religious beliefs, with deities often associated with water and fertility. 

How geography shaped different aspects of Mesopotamian society:

• Political:

• The need to manage irrigation systems led to the rise of powerful rulers and centralized authority, with kings often seen as responsible for ensuring the well-being of their people by controlling water access. 

• Economic:

• Agriculture became the backbone of the Mesopotamian economy, with surplus crops enabling trade and the development of specialized crafts. 

• Social:

• The dependence on agriculture created a social hierarchy with farmers, artisans, and administrators, with the ruling class often controlling access to water and lan

Agricultural Revolution—What are some of the theories for why it occurred?

• Becuase foragers migrated to new area and didn’t know the lay of the la d

Post-Ice Age Warming: After the last Ice Age (around 10,000 years ago), the climate warmed, leading to changes in ecosystems. Wild plant and animal populations changed, and some regions became more suitable for agriculture

According to this theory, population growth and the resulting pressure on existing resources pushed people to adopt farming to ensure a steady, reliable food supply.

The Garden of Eden theory in this context is built on the idea that early human societies may have been living in areas where resources were abundant, such as lush forests, river valleys, or grasslands, teeming with wild plants and animals. These environments were so rich in food resources that humans were able to live without the need for intensive labor or agriculture. The "Garden of Eden" here is symbolic of these "Edenic" or perfect-foraging environments, where everything people needed seemed to be right at hand.

state life

Claim: Whether it’s more advantageous to live inside or outside a state depends on lifestyle, economic needs, and societal values.

• Pastoralists and hill people (often categorized as "uncivilized") may enjoy more freedom and mobility, but may face greater challenges related to security, resources, and access to services compared to those within a state.

• People in city-states (such as those in Mesopotamia) may benefit from organized governance, economic stability, and public services, but they might also face issues like social inequality and state-imposed restrictions.

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Advantages of Living Outside a State (Pastoralists and Hill People):

• Autonomy and Freedom:

  • Less centralized control: Pastoralists and hill people often lived outside the formal structures of the state, which could mean greater freedom to make decisions independently without government regulation or taxation.

  • Mobility: These groups could move across vast areas, allowing them to exploit new grazing lands, avoid harsh conditions, or escape conflicts.

• Cultural Preservation:

  • Traditional lifestyles: Many pastoralists and hill people maintained unique cultural practices, languages, and belief systems that could be lost or marginalized in state-controlled societies.

  • Collective decision-making: These communities often made decisions through more egalitarian or tribal processes, with leaders emerging from consensus rather than hierarchy.

• Lower Economic Dependence:

  • Less reliance on formal economies: Pastoralist societies depended on self-sustained economies, raising their own livestock and producing what they needed, which reduced dependence on state-controlled markets or labor systems.

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Disadvantages of Living Outside a State:

• Vulnerability to Conflict and Insecurity:

  • Lack of protection: Without a state’s military or policing structures, pastoralist and hill communities were more vulnerable to raids by other groups, including neighboring state-based societies.

  • Resource competition: Pastoralists often had to compete for land and water resources, leading to conflicts with other groups, especially in arid regions.

• Limited Access to Resources and Infrastructure:

  • No public services: Pastoralists lacked access to education, healthcare, or infrastructure that state-based societies could offer.

  • Lower agricultural output: Without the technological advances available in sedentary farming societies, pastoralists could not support as large a population or create surpluses that allowed for economic growth or specialization.

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Advantages of Living Within a State (City-States like Mesopotamia):

• Political Stability and Protection:

  • Law and order: States provided centralized systems of law and protection through police forces and armies, offering security from external and internal threats.

  • Defense against external threats: City-states, like those in Mesopotamia, often had strong walls, armies, and alliances that protected their citizens from invasions and raids.

• Economic Development and Specialization:

  • Trade networks: States developed trade routes, both locally and internationally, allowing for the exchange of goods, resources, and knowledge, which pastoralists outside the state might not have access to.

  • Surplus production: Agricultural advancements like irrigation allowed for larger food surpluses, supporting bigger populations and creating opportunities for economic specialization (e.g., in crafts, administration, and trade).

• Public Services and Infrastructure:

  • Urban centers: Cities like Babylon or Ur in Mesopotamia developed infrastructure such as markets, temples, public baths, and granaries, improving living conditions for urban residents.

  • Social welfare: Some states provided tax-supported systems that funded public goods and services, like temples, irrigation systems, and social safety nets.

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Disadvantages of Living Within a State:

• Social Inequality and Stratification:

  • Rigid class systems: States like those in Mesopotamia often had strict social hierarchies, where elite rulers, priests, and merchants controlled wealth and resources, while peasants and slaves were at the bottom of the social ladder.

  • Slavery and exploitation: In city-states, slaves were often used for agricultural work, building projects, or serving the elite, creating a deeply unequal society.

• State Control and Regulation:

  • Loss of personal autonomy: Living under a state often meant that individuals had to comply with state-imposed laws, taxes, and restrictions on movement or economic activities.

  • Bureaucratic systems: Complex administrative systems could lead to inefficiency and the exploitation of resources, which could benefit elites but not always the common people.

• Environmental Overuse:

  • Resource depletion: As city-states grew, they often overused local resources, leading to issues like soil depletion, water shortages, or deforestation—issues pastoralists may have been less prone to because of their mobility and lower population density.

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Context & Evidence:

• Pastoralist societies (often considered "uncivilized" in classical texts) were typically nomadic or semi-nomadic and were often viewed as outsiders by more settled, agrarian states. They valued autonomy, mobility, and self-sufficiency, but their lack of centralized governance and reliance on cattle, sheep, and goats meant that they did not have the technological advancements or urban development seen in agricultural societies.

• State-based societies (e.g., Sumerians in Mesopotamia) were often considered the epitome of "civilization" due to their advanced agricultural techniques, urban planning, and centralized political systems. While these societies offered benefits like security and economic growth, they often came at the cost of social stratification and state control over individuals' lives.

state life

• Pastoralists and hill people (often categorized as "uncivilized") may enjoy more freedom and mobility, but may face greater challenges related to security, resources, and access to services compared to those within a state.

• People in city-states (such as those in Mesopotamia) may benefit from organized governance, economic stability, and public services, but they might also face issues like social inequality and state-imposed restrictions.

• Autonomy and Freedom:

  • Less centralized control: Pastoralists and hill people often lived outside the formal structures of the state, which could mean greater freedom to make decisions independently without government regulation or taxation.

  • Mobility: These groups could move across vast areas, allowing them to exploit new grazing lands, avoid harsh conditions, or escape conflicts.

• Cultural Preservation:

  • Traditional lifestyles: Many pastoralists and hill people maintained unique cultural practices, languages, and belief systems that could be lost or marginalized in state-controlled societies.

  • Collective decision-making: These communities often made decisions through more egalitarian or tribal processes, with leaders emerging from consensus rather than hierarchy.

• Lower Economic Dependence:

  • Less reliance on formal economies: Pastoralist societies depended on self-sustained economies, raising their own livestock and producing what they needed, which reduced dependence on state-controlled markets or labor systems.

  • Lack of protection: Without a state’s military or policing structures, pastoralist and hill communities were more vulnerable to raids by other groups, including neighboring state-based societies.

  • Resource competition: Pastoralists often had to compete for land and water resources, leading to conflicts with other groups, especially in arid regions.

• Limited Access to Resources and Infrastructure:

  • No public services: Pastoralists lacked access to education, healthcare, or infrastructure that state-based societies could offer.

  • Lower agricultural output: Without the technological advances available in sedentary farming societies, pastoralists could not support as large a population or create surpluses that allowed for economic growth or specialization.

empire

❏ What is an empire? What are its defining characteristics?

❏ Do they have to be large?

❏ Are empires an effective form of ruling over populations?

❏ Are they net positive or negative? What are the pros and cons of empire?

• Political order that rules over a number of distinct peoples of different cultures and territories 

•  Flexible borders with an aim toward expanding 

•  Unite larger and larger segments of peoples, species, and lands 

•  Imperial ideology tends to be inclusive and all-encompassing since it needs
  to accommodate diverse peoples, languages, cultures, beliefs 

•  Enable the transfer of ideas, people, goods, and technology = spreaders of
  institutions, religion, norms, and cultures 

Sargon

•  Sargon (~2340BCE) unites many Mesopotamian cities under his rule 

• ❏  Founded new capital, Akkad 

• ❏  Centralized government: 

  • ❏  Appointed own governors 

  • ❏  Appointed daughter Enheduanna
    as high priestess of Ur and Uruk 

  • ❏  Establishes use of Akkadian
    cuneiform 

• ❏  Kings replaced priests as
  central authorities 

• ❏  Shift of power to the north 

•  Ruled Sumeria and Akkad 

• ●  Developed advanced centralized
  government and bureaucracy 

  • ○  King appointed governors to
    manage cities 

  • ○  Provincial redistribution
    centers 

• ●  Exercised close control over
  production and taxation