AP Psychology 1st Semester Terms

A comprehensive set of flashcards for AP Psychology covering key terms and concepts from the first semester.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal universal principles.

Survey

A research method that has people self-report attitudes or behaviors, usually done by questioning a representative sample.

Population

All the people in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive data rather than numerical.

Quantitative Data

Data that can be measured in numbers.

Structured Interviews

An interviewing approach that involves developing a set of questions beforehand and asking the same questions in the same order.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables influence each other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from -1 to +1.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing the values of two variables.

Likert Scale

A numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes with labeled anchors.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores falling at or below a specific score.

Directionality Problem

A problem in correlational studies where the direction of the relationship is unclear.

Positive Correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases.

Negative Correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Experiment

A research method where the researcher manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where both participants and staff are unaware of treatment assignments.

Third Variable Problem

The concept that a correlation may stem from a third variable that influences both variables.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the treatment, used for comparison.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated by the researcher.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor that is being measured in an experiment.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Mean

The average of a distribution obtained by dividing the sum of scores by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A statistic that describes variability in scores relative to the mean.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of many types of data.

Statistical Significance

The measure of whether the independent variable's impact is large enough to be meaningful.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to fall back toward the average.

Effect Size

A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle that participants be informed enough to consent to participate.

Informed Assent

Consent provided by children for participation in research.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation necessary for participants, especially when deception is used.

APA Code of Ethics

Guidelines developed to ensure ethical conduct in psychological research.

Confidentiality

The assurance that information is only available to authorized individuals.

Review Board (IRB)

A panel that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards.

Protection from Harm

The right of participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm.

Animal Ethics in Research

Moral principles guiding the ethical treatment of animals in research.

Behaviorism

The psychological perspective focusing on objective science and behavior without mental processes.

Humanistic Psychology

The perspective emphasizing human growth potential and self-actualization.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The study of brain activity linked with mental processes.

Neurobiological Psychology

Concerned with links between biology and behavior.

Psychodynamic Psychology

Studies how unconscious drives influence behavior, based on Freud's theories.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of behavior roots using natural selection principles.

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes such as problem-solving and memory.

Social-Cultural Psychology

The study of how situation and culture affect behavior.

Social Psychology

The study of how individuals think about and influence one another.

Positive Psychology

The study of how humans flourish and the promotion of well-being.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate over whether genetics or environment drives behavior.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and environment.

Circadian Rhythm

The internal biological clock regulating sleep cycles.

REM Sleep

The sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

Stages 1-3 Sleep

Non-REM stages of sleep characterized by different brain wave patterns.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder marked by uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep.

Night Terrors

High arousal episodes that occur during deep sleep, usually not remembered.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking, or performing activities while asleep.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A disorder where individuals act out their dreams during REM sleep.

Sleep Paralysis

A temporary inability to move upon awakening.

Latent Content

The underlying meaning of a dream according to Freud.

Consolidation Theory

The theory that REM sleep enhances memory creation.

Activation-Synthesis Model

The theory that dreams are random neurological activity the brain tries to interpret.

5 Main Senses

Vision, Audition, Olfaction, Gustation, and Touch.

Kinesthetic Sense

The sense of body part location relative to each other.

Vestibular Sense

The sense of balance located in the inner ear.

Transduction

The conversion of stimulus energies into neural impulses.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli for detection 50% of the time.

Weber's Law

Principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage to be perceived as different.

Signal Detection Theory

A theory predicting detection of a faint stimulus based on experience and motivation.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Visual Wavelengths

The distance between peaks in light waves, impacting color perception.

Anatomy of the Eye

The structure of the eye, including lens and retina, responsible for vision.

Cones of the Retina

Receptors for color concentrated in the fovea.

Rods of the Retina

Receptors that detect movement and light, found at the periphery.

Blindspot

The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating no visual response.

Accommodation of Vision

The process by which the lens changes shape for focusing on objects.

Nearsightedness/Farsightedness

Conditions affecting focus for near or far objects, respectively.

Order of Visual Transduction

The sequence of cell types involved in converting light to neurological signals.

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

The theory stating the retina has three color receptors for red, green, and blue.

Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision

The theory that color receptors are linked in pairs that oppose one another.

Negative After-Image Effects

Visual phenomenon describing how opposing colors affect perception.

Color Blindness Types

Dichromatic: lacking red or green; Monochromatic: no color receptors.

Apparent Motion

The perception of movement due to rapidly alternating signals in different locations.