PSY2000 EXAM PART B

Learning

• refers to a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experiences

The Three Kinds of Learning

• classical conditioning

• operant conditioning

• cognitive learning

Classical Conditioning

• a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being associated with a stimulus that already elicits a response

Unconditioned Stimulus

• a stimulus that automatically elicits a particular unconditioned response

Unconditioned Response

• an unlearned, automatic response to a particular unconditioned stimulus

Neutral Stimulus

• a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

Little Albert Study

-Study by demonstrated how fear could be classically conditioned

After several pairings of the white rat with the loud noise, Albert began to exhibit signs of fear upon merely seeing the rat, even in the absence of the noise. This conditioned fear response demonstrated that emotional reactions could indeed be learned through classical conditioning.

Operant Learning

• a form of learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable - depending on its consequences

Receiving a Reinforcer after a Response

Behavior is more likely to be repated

Receiving a Punishment after a Response

Behavior is less likely to be repeated

Primary Reinforcers

• an unlearned reinforcer that satisfies a biological need

• ex: Food, Water, Sleep, Shelter, Oxygen

Secondary Reinforcers

• a neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing after being associated with a primary reinforcer

• ex. Money, Good Grades, Power, ex.

Positive Reinforcement

• the presentation of something desirable after the behavior

• increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future

Negative Reinforcement

• the removal of something aversive after a behavior

• increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur in the future

When is reinforcement most effective?

• when it comes immediately after the behavior

When can extinction occur?

• When there is a gradual disappearance of a response that is no longer followed by a reinforcer.

Golden Rules Using Punishment to Discipling Children

• punishment should be immediate

• punishment should be strong enough to stop the undesirable behavior but not too excessive

• punishment should be consistent

• punishment should be aimed at the misbehavior and not the child

Social Learning Theory

• assumes that people learn behaviors mainly through observation and mental processing of information

Vicarious Reinforcement

• a type of learning where you're more likely to do something because you saw someone else get rewarded for it, without having to experience the reward or punishment directly yourself

Four Components of Observational Learning

• An individual must pay attention to the model’s actions.

• An individual must remember the model’s actions.

• An individual must have the ability to produce the actions.

• 4. Whether or not the individual actually imitates the actions is dependent upon many other factors

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What happens to your body during weeks and months of not getting enough sleep. Why?

NO! The feelings of increased sleepiness begins to stabilize but does not mean that the body has adjusted to less sleep

Negative Consequences of Insufficent Sleep

• negatively impacts your daytime performance: harms decision-making, memory, focus, and creativity

• can interfere with bodily functions - such as: metabolism, the cardiovascular system, the immune system, hormone production, and mental health

How many hours of sleep that adults should get per night?

7-9

Sleep Quality

• How rested and restored an individual feels after sleeping

Sleep Continuity

• The amount of time a person spends sleeping versus waking up

Circadian Rhythm

• the body’s internal clock

• sleeping at night helps it to align

• also affect sleep quality and health

When are movement during sleep an issue?

If it’s: prologned, abnormal, aggressive, etc.

How does brain work during sleep?

• Brain activity ramps up to a level that shares similarities with when you’re awake

What are cases where people can’t dream?

• Adults with certain brain injuries

Children between ages 3 and 8 dream about how much during sleep time?

about 20 to 28%

Sleep Apena

• a condition in which a person awakens repeatedly in order to breathe

For napping, its better to keep it less than….

• 30 Minutes

Why do 72% of teens tend to sleep later?

• mainly due to biological changes that start around puberty that push the circadian rhythm of adolescents back by around two hours.

Most people sleep best in a room temperature of…

60 Degrees Farenheit

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Abnormality

• the behavior deviates from the behavior of the “typical” person

Maladaptiveness

• the behavior seriously disrupts the individual’s social, academic, or vocational life

Personal Distress

• the individual experiences anxiety, depression, or other unpleasant emotions as a result of the behavior

How does the Biopsychosocial model apply to psychological disorders?

-not as single-cause issues but as complex results of interacting biological (genes, brain), psychological (thoughts, emotions, behaviors, trauma), and social (culture, relationships, finances) factors, leading to integrated treatment approaches like therapy plus medication. 

• Inherited or acquired brain disorders involving imbalances in neurotransmitters or damage to brain structures.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

• the most widely used system of classification of psychological disorders

• is useful because when an individual is diagnosed with a psychological disorder it will mean approximately the same thing to a different practitioner

What were the reuslts of the Rosenhan study?

Diagnosis of psychological disorders are influenced more by preconceptions and by the setting in which we find a person than by any objective characteristics

• Common Sense Belief does not determine psychological disorders

Anxiety

• a feeling of apprehension accompanied by sympathetic nervous system arousal - which increases sweating, heart rate, and breathing rate and produces other physiological responses

Anxiety Disorder

• a psychological disorder marked by persistent and unrealistic worry that disrupts everyday functioning

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

• the individual worries constantly about almost everything - including work, school, finances, and social relationships

Panic Disorder

• a sudden severe fear response in the absence of any sort of realistic threat

• accompanied by dizziness, trembling, cold sweats, heart palpitations, etc.

Phobias

• an anxiety disorder marked by excessive or inappropriate fear; individuals realize that their fear is irrational but cannot prevent it

Specific Phobia

• an intense, irrational phobia of a specific object or situation; individuals will go to great lengths to avoid the object or the situation

Social Anxiety Disorder

• a phobia of situations that involve social evaluation

• could lead to the individual avoiding playing sports, making telephone calls, or performing music in public

Agoraphobia

• a fear of being in public - usually because the person fears the embarrassment of a panic attack

Obsession

• persistent, recurring thought

Compulsion

• an action that you feel compelled to perform repeatedly

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

• an anxiety disorder in which the person has recurrent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and recurrent urges to perform ritualistic actions (compulsions)

• common symptoms: hoarding, checking, washing, etc

Dissociative Disorders

• a psychological disorder in which a person’s conscious mind loses access to certain thoughts, feelings, and memories

Dissociative Amnesia

• the inability to recall personally significant memories; usually related to a traumatic event

Dissociative Fugue

• memory loss as well as the loss of one’s identity and fleeing from one’s prior life; memory can return at later date with no recall of what happened during the fugue period

Dissociative Identity Disorder

• a dissociative disorder in which the person has two or more distinct personalities that alternate with one another (multiple personality disorder)

Where do Dissociate Disorders come from?

• These individuals almost always have had traumatic experiences in early childhood (typically including sexual, physical, and emotional abuse) leading them to escape into their alternate personalities.

Major Depressive Disorder

• individual who eperience prolonged periods of extreme depression.

• commonly express despondency, helplessness, and loss of self-esteem. (stress is major trigger)

Bipolar Disorder

• characterized by days or weeks of mania alternating with longer periods of major depressive disorder (typically separated by days or weeks of normal moods)

Mania

• involves euphoria, hyperactivity, grandiose ideas, incoherent talkativeness, blind optimism, and inflated self-esteem

• these people tend to be reckless

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Schizophrenia

• a severe psychological disorder characterized by impaired social, emotional, cognitive, and perceptual functioning

• delusions: a false belief that doesn’t change, hard time remembering things, disordered thoughts