D303 STCE - AP Psychology 2024-25: Unit 1.5, Sensation & Perception - Vocabulary Review

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

gestalt principle

different ways individuals group stimuli together in order to make a whole like sense of them. These principles include proximity, similarity, continuity and closure, and connectedness.

closure

[gestalt]

Our tendency to perceive incomplete or fragmented visual elements as a complete and whole object

• natural

• fill in holes

similarity

[gestalt]

When we are looking at items we tend to see things in groups.

proximity

[gestalt]

when an individual perceives several objects that are close together as belonging together

continuity

[gestalt]

our brains tend to see objects such as continuous or smooth rather than disjointed or continuous

connectedness

[gestalt]

When we see connections in disjointed objects

• connect things to make them whole

binocular cue

A depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

linear perspective

[monocular cue]

system of creating an illusion of depth on a flat surface

interposition

[monocular cue]

Idea that when we see something on top of another thing our brain interprets that item is closer to us

perceptual constancy - shape

[monocular cue]

Tendency to perceive an object as having a consistent shape, even when the visual image projected on the retina changes due to different viewing angles or distances

• previous experience, our brain, & our perception

color constancy

where our brains perceive a familiar object as having the same color even when the lighting conditions change

apparent movement/phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink once and off in quick succession

retinal disparity

[binocular cue]

fact that the left and right fields of vision provide slightly different visual images when focusing on a single object

convergence

[binocular cue]

action of the eyes rotating inwards towards each other to focus on a nearby object

perceptual constancy - size

tendency for our brains to perceive an object as maintaining it’s size despite changes in its distance from us

gustation

our sense of taste and the perception of different flavors through the taste buds on our tongue

taste receptors

sensory cells located in the taste buds allowing us to perceive different taste

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami

Five tastes of sensation. Umami is a flavor enhancer, essentially monosodium glutamate (MSG)

• spice is not a sensation, it’s a pain

Smell

refers to the sense of detecting odors or scents

cialis

receptor cells in the membrane that receive the odor molecules

• compare to cones+rods or cialis in ear

• transduction

olfactory bulb

receives sensory information [for smell]

• structure located at the base of the brain

• compare to cochlea or retina

olfactory nerve

pathway that sends the neural message of the odor molecule to the brain

• not to the thalamus

• direct line to the brain

Processed near hippocampus

• taste near the temporal lobe

• combination of taste & smell

kinethesis

body’s ability to perceive the position and movement of your limbs and body parts without relying on sight

Vestibular sense

sense of balance;

• causes us to feel dizzy

Semicircular canals

fluid filled tubes located within the inner ear

touch

where we perceive pressure and temperature applied to our skin

• vital for our well-being

gate-control theory

explains how do we via touch experience pain

• open=feel more pain

• closed=feel less pain

impact whether gates open or close

• rubbing or touching the hurt area

• how you’re feeling

phantom limb

sensation of pain in a limb that was amputated

• brain creates pain

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

• especially taste+smell

synesthesia

Where stimulating one sense involuntarily triggers a sensation in another sense

• brain circuits

• 1-4% have this in the population

supertaster

individuals who have a heightened sense of taste

• increased number of taste buds

• picky eaters

non-taster

individuals who have a significantly reduced ability to taste certain flavors

• decreased number of taste buds

medium taster

individuals with an average ability to perceive taste

• normal levels

(25% of population have supertaste, 25% have non-taste, and rest have medium taste)

pinna (called auricle)

whole outside of your ear

auditory/ear canal

narrow tubelike passage through which sounds enters the ear

tympanic membrane/eardrum

tight membrane that vibrates when in contact with sound waves

hammer/malleus

one of the three tiny bones of the middle ear (1/3), starts with an h

cochlea

spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that plays a crucial role in hearing

cialis (hair cells)

tiny hair cells responsible for the process of transduction in the ear

basilar membrane

incoming vibrations causes the cochlea’s membrane-covered opening (oval window) to vibrate; jostling the fluid inside the cochlea, causing ripples.

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds & smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret.

auditory nerve

Carries the neural messages to the thalamus then to the auditory cortex in the brain’s temproal lobe.

amplitude

the height (up and down), how loud we are

place theory

Indicates wherever that sound ends up in the cochlea determining how high or low pitched

frequency theory

Look at a repetitive vibration or movement on each of the Cialis on the basilar membrane

• low frequency

anvil/incus

one of the three tiny bones of the middle ear (2/3), starts with an a

stirrup/stapes

one of the three tiny bones of the middle ear (3/3)

Picks up vibrations from the tympanic membrane (eardrum) and transmits them to the cochlea

oval window

Little window that helps the sound waves enter into the cochlea

frequency

how high pitched (side to side)

conductive hearing loss

caused by poor transfer of sounds from the tympanic membrane or eardrum to the inner ear

• age

• hearing aids

sensorineural deafness

caused by damage to the inner ear

• cochlea, hair cells, auditory nerve or auditory process of the brain

• cochlear implants

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission.

Can also determine hue.

cornea

the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil & iris

pupil

dark allows light to enter the eye and reach the retina

• dark black dot on the eye

• controlled by the iris

Iris

constricts and dilates your pupils depending on the light in the room

• dark=larger

• light=smaller

Lens

can adjust its shape to bend light for proper focus onto the retina

• sits behind the pupil

accommodation

the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects in the retina

Retina

area in the back of the eye that contains photoreceptors

Cones

allow us to see color

fovea

small tiny area of the retina that the focal point

• allows us to see clear & fine detail

Optic nerve

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Blind spot

part of the retina that contains no rods or cones

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. IN sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret

Photoreceptors

specialized cells in the retina that convert light energy into electrical signals

bipolar cells

Connects the photoreceptors and ganglion cells

• cones get their own singular bipolar cell

• outside rods & cones share bipolar cell

Ganglion cells

receives information visually from the photoreceptors via the bipolar cells & passes the information on to the brain through the optic nerve

• thalamus to occipital lobe

hue/color

the dimension for color that’s determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are simultaneously by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

• red & greens

• yellows & blues

• whites & blacks

afterimages

the image that remains after a stimulus ends or is removed

Young-Helmholtz Theory (three-color)

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which, when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color

• blue, red, & green cones

rods

allow us to see black & white

colorblindness monochromatism

complete color blindness

• can only see shades of gray, black & white

• no cones or just one type of cones

colorblindness dichromatism

partial color blindness

• only 2 or 3 different types of cones available (red, green, & blue)

prosopagnosia

inability to recognize familiar faces

• face blindness

• developmental & acquired

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

(think of the five senses…)

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects & events as meaningful

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience & expectations.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a partciular stimulus 50% of the time. (When we experience a sensation)

• Age can impact our threshold

• Different for each person

signal detection theory

Our threshold is impacted by our expectations (i.e. smelling an apple pie)

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as just a noticable difference (or jnd).

Weber’s Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.