PLAN101 Midterm 1

Urban

Characteristic of (or pertaining to) the city.

Urban cluster

U.S. Census Bureau term for adjacent areas with populations ranging from 2,500 to 49,999 that extend across city, country, or state boundaries.

Rural

U.S. Census Bureau designation for places with less than 2,500 persons.

Suburban

Urban area outside of the city core.

Micropolitan

Urban core area of at least 10,000 residents but less than 50,000.

Metropolitan

A large population center and adjacent communities with a high degree of social integration. Also known as agglomeration.

Megaregion

Area formed when two or more metropolitan areas expand so that they intermingle with one another to form a continuous (or almost continuous) urban complex. Also known as megalopolis.

Megacity

A metropolitan area that has at least 10 million people in its boundaries.

Global City

City that occupies an influential position in the global economic system. Also called world city.

Urbanization

The changes resulting from people moving into cities and other densely populated areas. Characterized by population concentration and transformation in economic activity.

Urbanism

The culture of way of life of city dwellers.

Specialization

Organization of individuals into specific economic and/or social roles, often for life.

Social Stratification

Hierarchical ranking of people in terms of valued resources.

Social Power

Ability to achieve one’s goals and shape events.

Urban Administrative Function

A city’s role as a national or regional capital.

Urban Economic Activity

When more than half the residents in a city are in nonagricultural function.

Urban Level of Infrastructure

Existence of paved streets, water supply, sewerage, and electrical systems.

Folk Society

An isolated society with minimal outside contacts.

Industrialization

Shift to manufacturing by means of mass production in as enabled by advances in technology and concentration of labor in cities. 

Urban Sociology

Study of social organization and life of cities.

Urban Geography

Study of cities’ location and spatial organization.

Ecological Approach

Theorizes social and geographical dimensions of the city as cultural processes.

Contemporary Critical Urban Theory

Critical approach examining variation, dynamics or power, and multiple narratives for understanding urban life. 

Culture

Collective, systematic force of attitudes, beliefs, and social norms that shape our lives and behaviors.

What does “urban” mean?

From urbanus, meaning characteristic of or pertaining to the city.

How does the definition of “urban” differ between countries?

It varies—for example, U.S. defines urban as >= 1,000 people per square mile; Canada defines urban as >= 400/km² and >= 1,000 total population.

What are the different measures of urbanization?

Rural, urban cluster, micropolitan, metropolitan, megaregion, megacity, global city

What defines a city according to Steinberg?

Cities are places of specialization, productivity, innovation, cultural development, and concentrated populations in interaction and competition. 

What contradictions exist in cities according to Steinberg?

Tensions between attachment/mobility, memory/forgetting, unity/division, and the built environment/nature.

What are four elements that make a place urban?

Administrative function, economic activity, level of infrastructure, and population density.

How does urban society differ from folk society?

Urban societies are large, socially heterogeneous, specialized, and stratified; folk societies are small, kin-based, and egalitarian.

What is the difference between urbanization and urbanism?

Urbanization is the process of concentrating people and economic activity in cities; urbanism refers to the values, norms, and lifestyles of urban life.

When did cities first appear historically?

Cities first appeared about 10,000 years ago following the Neolithic Revolution.

What disciplines contribute to urban studies?

History, archaeology, psychology, geography, economics, political science, sociology, design, and art.

What approaches are used in modern urban studies?

Approaches have shifted from ecological perspectives to contemporary critical urban theory, emphasizing culture and the built environment.

Why do we study cities according to Macionis & Parrillo (2024)?

Because 'cities are an inseparable part of their larger societies'—studying them helps us understand ourselves.

What do cities reveal about societies?

Cities are microcosms that reflect the social, economic, and cultural dynamics of their societies.

What trends define modern urbanization?

Suburbanization, Sunbelt growth, and rapid urbanization in developing countries.

Cosmic Calendar

The entire history of the cosmos (but especially our planet) condensed into a single “year” to properly reflect ages of human involvement and influence.

Civilized

From the Latin civitas, to live in or near a city.

Agricultural Revolution

The period of history where the domestication of plants allowed for the development of civilization.

Division of Labor

The process of specialization that allows members of a group to do many different, specialized tasks to earn a living rather than just hunting/gathering.

Hierarchical Power Structure

A social stratification with some members of a city exercising social power over others, often as a result of a complex division of labor and accumulation of wealth. 

Productive Surplus

An excess in the food supply beyond what was needed to support a city’s residents and that supported permanent settlement and growth.

City-state

A city that controlled the surrounding regions, including a number of towns, villages, and rural lands.

First Urban Revolution

4000 BCE-500 CE. Urban sites multiplied, populations grew, and early cities appeared. 

Regal/ritual city

A city used primarily by the ruling class for administrative and religious function. Typically supported only a small population.

Polis

Greek for city-state.

Bourgeoisie

From French, meaning of the town. A middle class with considerable urban social power.

Demographic transition

When birth rates significantly exceed death rates (or immigration exceeds death rates), leading to a major population explosion (and sometimes change in average demographics of the population).

Double magnet

When a city serves as both a financial center and a political center for a population.

What key transitions led from hunter-gatherers to cities?

Agricultural revolution, productive surplus, division of labor, and hierarchical power structure.

What does Sjoberg’s model of societal transition describe?

The movement from folk societies (self-sufficient, kin-based) to urban societies (specialized, stratified).

What evidence shows early city complexity in Jericho?

Brick houses, defensive wall, tower, and trench—indicating division of labor and social hierarchy.

What characterized Çatalhöyük?

Dense mud-brick housing without streets, rooftop entrances, and a trade-based economy.

What features defined early city-states according to Sjoberg (1965)?

Specialization, size, administrative taxation, monuments, ruling elites, writing, sciences, art, trade, and a middle class.

What did early city-states share in common?

Favorable ecology, surplus production, trade, social complexity, and short life expectancies.

How did early city-states differ from one another?

They varied in size, density, and degree of stratification, and population growth was inconsistent.

Why study ancient cities?

They reveal human adaptation, social organization, and enduring cultural and architectural legacies.

What can early cities teach about social change?

They show how agriculture, surplus, and trade led to hierarchy, complexity, and inequality.

What happened to cities after the fall of Rome?

Trade declined, disease spread, and feudal systems arose with lords ruling from fortified centers.

How did the Crusades affect cities?

They stimulated trade and craft guilds, creating a merchant class and splitting power between priests, merchants, and landowners.

What were characteristics of medieval city life?

Religion was central, trade was vital, security was important, and social hierarchy persisted.

What geographic features made early London ideal for a city?

The River Thames bridge location and port access made it ideal for trade and defense.

How did London change through the medieval period?

It became a dual center of religion and wealth; Westminster and the Tower of London expanded influence.

How did London evolve as a world city (1550–1800)?

It grew through trade and empire, suffered the Great Fire and Plague, and became a hub of culture and tragedy.

How did industrialization reshape London (1800–1900)?

Empire-driven trade caused rapid urban growth and severe poverty.

How did modern London (1900–present) transform?

Wars, decolonization, and immigration reshaped its demographics and labor systems.

What role did trade play throughout city history?

Trade enabled surplus exchange, economic diversification, and cultural diffusion.

What is the 'bread and circus' concept in Rome?

Public entertainment used to distract citizens and maintain imperial control through spectacle.

What is the relationship between capitalism and cities?

The second urban revolution (around 1650) coincided with the rise of capitalism, driving urban population and economic growth.

Pre-Columbian

The period of time in the Americas prior to Columbus’s arrival.

Decentralization

The outward migration of people and business from the central city to outlying suburban regions.

Sunbelt expansion

The growth of population, commerce, and industry in the South and West.

Globalization

The development of an increasingly integrated global economy marked by connectivity and interdependence of the world’s businesses and markets.

Urban implosion

Ever-greater numbers of people moving out from the city to surrounding regions.

Urban explosion

Ever-greater numbers of people moving into the city.

Industrial parks

Areas zoned for a cluster of manufacturing entities on campus-like settings.

Metropolitan Statistical Area

At least one city with 50,000 or more inhabitants, its county, and any surrounding urban countries from which a large proportion of inhabitants are attracted as commuters.

Combined Statistical Area

The U.S. Census Bureau term for a megalopolis, or overlapping of metropolitan regions.

Urban decay

Sociological process for a city falling into disrepair.

Gentrification

When white-collar professionals move into and transform older, decaying neighborhoods of many cities.

Business Improvement District

Privately directed and publicly sanctioned organizations that supplement public services within geographically defined boundaries by generating multiyear revenue through a compulsory assessment on local property owners and/or businesses.

What are the four phases of development for North American cities?

Colonial phase (1600–1800), Westward expansion (1800–1870), Growth of metropolis (1870–1950), and Modern era (1950–present).

What were the earliest European cities in North America?

Boston, Charles Town (Charleston), New Amsterdam (New York), Newport, Philadelphia, and Quebec City.

What is an example of pre-Columbian urbanization in North America?

Cahokia, which had about 15,000 residents around 1200 CE, covered 5 square miles, and contained 120 earthen pyramids.

How were early colonial cities established?

Through chartered joint-stock companies like the Virginia Company, given trading monopolies in claimed areas.

What social or ideological motives influenced early colonial cities?

Calvinism and the idea of a “city upon a hill”; settlers justified taking Indigenous land as “unused” or “waste.”

What urban elements influenced life in colonial cities?

Access to rivers and seaports, raw materials, and slave labor in southern cities.

What were common traits of colonial cities?

Small population size (~2,500 people), unpaved irregular streets, and organization around churches, military facilities, and workshops.

What was unique about Philadelphia’s design?

It was one of the first U.S. cities designed on a grid plan, resembling European urban planning.

How did cities influence the Revolutionary War?

Cities like New York and Philadelphia were hubs of trade and political discussion; the war was largely instigated by urban centers.

What caused urban growth during westward expansion (1800–1870)?

New transportation networks (roads, canals, rivers) and industrialization that enabled expansion and trade.

What two factors allowed rapid city growth in the North?

Transportation (roads, canals, railways) and industrial technology (factories powered by water).

How did industrialization affect Northern and Southern cities differently?

Northern cities industrialized rapidly, while Southern cities dependent on slave labor grew more slowly.

How did culture shift during the 19th century?

Urban culture became associated with industrial values, while rural areas idealized “simpler” country life.

What was the Civil War’s cultural dimension according to Macionis & Parrillo?

It represented a clash between urban-industrial and rural-agrarian values.

What fueled the growth of U.S. metropolises after the Civil War?

Technological advances, immigration, and annexation expanding city tax bases.

How did technology shape urban growth in the late 19th century?

Steel and elevators allowed vertical growth; streetcars and automobiles enabled horizontal (suburban) expansion.

What were key impacts of migration on cities?

Housing demand, ethnic neighborhoods, and social diversity but also segregation and white flight.