Unit 2: Cognition

bottom-up processing

the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception

top-down processing

a progression from the whole to the elements

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Gestalt approach

A psychological school of thought originating in Germany that proposed that the whole of a perception must be understood rather than trying to deconstruct perception into its parts

similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

continuity

the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken-up pattern

closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Law of Pragnanz

reality is organized or reduced to the simplest form possible

feature detector approach

reduces an image to its simplest form by positing that organisms respond to specific aspects of a particular stimulus.

attentional resource theories

posit that we have only a fixed amount of attention, and that this resource can be divided up as is required in a given situation

Shadowing

A task in which the individual is asked to repeat an auditory message as it is presented.

retinal disparity (binocular cue)

images from the two eyes differ, and the closer the object the larger the disparity

stereoptic

involving the simultaneous use of both eyes

retinal convergence

depth cue that results from the fact that your eyes must turn inward slightly to focus on near objects

binocular disparity

the difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth

relative size (monocular cue)

if two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image to be farther away

texture gradient (monocular cue)

nearby objects have a coarser and more distinct texture than distant ones

interposition (monocular cue)

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

linear perspective (monocular cue)

parallel lines appear to converge with distance

vanishing point (monocular cue)

the perceived point on the horizon where parallel lines seem to converge

relative clarity (monocular cue)

objects that are sharp and clear seem closer. objects that are hazy seem further away

apparent motion

illusion of movement in a stationary object

phi phenomenon

the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession

stroboscopic effect

A visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by a series of stationary images that are presented in rapid succession

autokinetic effect

illusion, caused by very slight movements of the eye, that a stationary point of light in a dark room is moving

typicality

a measure of how well a category member represents that category

exemplar

something to be imitated

Superordinate concept

the most general form of a type of concept, such as "animal" or "fruit"

basic concept

smaller and more specific concept

subordinate concept

the most specific category of a concept

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind

representative heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

subliminal perception

the processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

declarative (explicit) memory

type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known

episodic memory

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences.

semantic memory

memory for knowledge about the world

nondeclarative (implicit) memory

knowledge that influences thought and behavior without any necessary involvement of consciousness

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

long term potential

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

semantically encoded

information in the long term memory that is encoded in the form of word meanings

acoustically encoded

the encoding of audio into the long (into the long term)

levels of processing model

the more deeply an item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered

recognition memory

an ability to correctly identify previously learned information

recall memory

requires active retrieval without the aid of cues

self-reference effect

tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

spacing effect

information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning

Distrubuted Practice

practice in brief periods with rest intervals

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

maintenance rehearsal

repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

the linking of new information to material that is already known

context dependent memory

when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

encoded

translating an idea or message into words, symbols, and illustrations

decay

fading away of memory over time

interference

the combination of two or more waves that results in a single wave

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

memory reconstruction

piecing memory together from a few highlights, using info that may or may not be accurate

source confusion

a memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten

framing

the way an issue is posed

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

g factor

the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence

multiple intelligences

idea that people vary in their ability levels across different domains of intellectual skill

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

standardization sample

a representative group of people who take the test and establish the norms.

norms

rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

internal validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Reliability

consistency of measurement

achievement tests

tests designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude tests

tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

test-retest method

a method of calculating reliability by repeating the same measure at two or more points in time

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Perceptional Process

Process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting data

Concepts

ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities