Learning (AP PSYCH)

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the first stimulus leads to a response in anticipation of the second stimulus

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who described classical conditioning after his landmark study with dogs in which he trained them to drool at the sound of a bell by pairing the bell with food

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

John B. Watson

American psychologist who founded behaviorism and conditioned an infant ("Little Albert") to fear small animals by pairing an animal with a loud noise

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (such as salivation to food in the mouth)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a previously extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occurs in other, similar situations.)

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Edward L. Thorndike

psychologist who developed the law of effect, which states behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is not

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

B. F. Skinner

American psychologist who studied operant conditioning primarily using rats and pigeons

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli, such as nagging

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need like food

conditioned reinforcer

a "secondary" stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, such as money

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a behavior at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

positive punishment

decreasing behaviors by administering aversive stimuli, such as scolding

negative punishment

decreasing behaviors by withdrawing rewarding stimuli, such as taking away privileges

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

overjustification effect

the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others (also called social learning)

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Albert Bandura

American psychologist who discovered in his "Bobo doll" studies that children will model aggressive behavior of adults

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.