Psyc 101 Exam 2

__; a relatively permanent behavior as a result of experience

__ __: 

• Pavlov

• __; involuntary response to stimuli

2 types:

__: unlearned, inborn, automatic

__: learned, acquired through learning

learning

classical conditioning

reflex

unconditioned

conditioned

___: stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

__: natural (unlearned) response caused by the unconditioned stimulus

__: original neutral stimulus

• unrelated to the reflex being conditioned

__: stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

what types of behaviors can be classically conditioned

__ __: ex- eye blink, pupil dilation, heartrate increase

unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned response

conditioned stimulus

conditioned response

reflexive behavior

general process in classical conditioning

__: initial learning

• neutral stimulus must precede the unconditioned stimulus

__: diminished response when conditioned stimulus no longer proceeded conditioned response

__ __: reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response

__: occurrence of response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus

__: occurrence of response only to a specific conditioned stimulus

classical conditioning is one way that __ organisms learn to adapt

demonstrats that ___ processes can be studied objectively

acquisition

extinction

spontaneous recovery

generalization

discrimination

all

psychological

___: a school of thought that arose form Pavlov’s studies of classical conditioning

emphasizes that all behavior can be studied in terms of observable behavior, without regard or internal process

John b watson

behaviorism

classical conditioning involves ___

• for learning to occur the ___ stimulus must be a reliable source

• if conditioned stimulus does not reliably predict the unconditioned stimulus conditioning does not occur

  • 20 tones +shock pairing, tone always precedes shock= classical conditioning

  • 20 tones+ shock, then 20 extra shocks, tone does not always precede shock no conditioning takes place

-___: previous conditioning to one stimulus prevents conditioning to a second stimulus

• tone + shock

• then tone+ light+ shock 

• light never becomes a CS

  • the light alone does not elicit fear. Previous conditioned to the tone prevented conditoing to the light

cognition

conditioned

blocking

__ __: an organism is predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

• exposed to bright light, clicking sound, and flavored water with side effect of nausea producing drug as the unconditioned stimulus

• only the __ __ become a conditioned stimulus

biological preparedness

flavored water

__ __: willful deliberate behavior 

Edward thornlike: studied learning in __

__: rewarded behavior is likely to occur

BF Skinner: to understand behavior we should focus on ___ causes and consequences

consequences of behavior

• reinforcement __ the response 

  • __: anything that strengthens a response

• punishment weakness the response

  • __: an aversion event that weakens a response

in general the sooner a reinforce or punisher follows a response the greater it’s effect

operant conditioning

animals

law of effect

external

strengthens

reinforcer

punishment

__ __: innately reinforcing

• Ex; water, shelter

__ __: learned

• Ex: money or paise 

__ __: adds a desirable stimulus

__ __: removes an aversive stimulus

with each reinforcement a resonse become more likely

__ __: administers an aversive stimulus

__ __: withdraw a desirable stimulus

with every punishment their is a decrease in likelihood of a response 

primary reinforcer

secondary reinforcer

positive reinforcement

negative reinforcement

positive punishment

negative punishment 

__ __: a response is always reinforced

• learning is more rapid with this schedule

__ __: a response is sometimes reinforced

• produces greater resistance to extinction

types of intermittent schedules

__ __: reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses

__ __: reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses

__: reinforcement occurs after a set period of time

__ __: reinforcement occurs after a variable period of time

__: method of successive approximations

• behaviors are broken down into many small achievable steps 

• reinforces closer and closer approximation of the desired behavior

continuous reinforcement

intermittent reinforcement

fixed ratio

variable ratio

fixed interval

variable interval

variable interval

shaping

effective use of __

• must immediately follow behavior

• must not inadvertently reinforce

• must be applied consistently

• should redirect behavior and reinforce desired behavior

effective use of ___

• must be tied to desired behavior

• avoid overemphasis on extrinsic reinforcers

  • if people are reinforced for something they already enjoy it can recue their intrinsic motivation

Skinner insisted

• behavior is shaped by ___ influences not thoughts and feelings

• skinner did not acknowledged any “invisible process. he believed that learning was demonstrated when people preformed some behaviors

Edward Toleman proposed two modifications

• we can’t study learning without considering the __, mental process

• we can infer these process objectively and scientifically 

punishment

reinforcement

external

internal

laten learning

__ __: learning that becomes apparent only when there is some incentive

__ __: experiment , made rate create cognitive maps of a maze. Lots of option but could they spatial understand instead of memorize the path to the cheese

__ __: learning by observing others

__: the processing of observing and imitating a specific behavior

__ __: observing reinforcement of others

__ __: observing punishment of others

Ex: the blow up doll and how the kids acted based on the adults demonstrating

latent learning

spatial orientation

observational learning

modeling

vicarious reinforcement

vicarious punishment

__: an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a compute

__-_ three stage processing model

• starts with sensory input

• sensory memory 

  • information not transferred is lost

• short term memory

  • require rehearsal

  • information not transferred is lost

• long term memory

__ __: 

• virtually unlimited capacity

• “raw” sensory information

• very short duration

• if info is not processed, it is lost forever

• iconic memory- raw visual input

• echoic memory- raw auditory input

things that we slesvtily pay attentio to then get to short term ememroy

memory

atkinson-shiffrin

sensory memory

__ __ memory: also called working memory

• limited capacity

• chunking helps

• limited duration (20 sec)

• can prolong duration with rehearsal sensitive to interference

__ __ memory:

• permanent storage

• virtually unlimited capacity

  • easily add to what you know

• highly organized

• types of long term memory

  • __ (declarative): can consciously recall this 

    • episodic- experienced events

    • semantic- knowledge and concepts

  • __(procedural): can’t consciously recall this info

    • body knows how to coordinate the memories

      • procedural-skills and actions

      • emotional conditioning

short term

long term

explicit

implicit

information moves from short term to long term memory by encoding

two kinds of encoding

• __: acquired and stored with minimal/ to no conscious effort

• __: studying or trying to retain info

how does info get stored in long term memory- __ __

• rehearsal

  • conscious repetition

  • least efficient way to encode

  • the more you rehearse, the more you remember

  • spacing is better

  • serial position effect- you remember the first and last things but not the middle

    • recency and primacy effect

-effortful encoding

• rehearsal

• encoding meaning-

  • the more you make it meaningful the better

• encoding imagery

  • mental picture

• organize information

  • meaning

  • chunking

  • hierarchy

• self-referent effect

  • relate personally

automatic

effortful

effortful encoding

the __ is involved in laying down new explicit memories

__ and __ are involved in implicit memories

stronger emotions produce stronger memories due to release of stress hormones

• the __ facilitates encoding of intense emotional memories

• “__ __”- memory etched in brain

  • Ex: covid

hippocampus and frontal lobe

cerebellum and basal ganglia

amygdala

flashbulb memory

___;

• three ways to assess

  • recall- open ended

  • recognition- MC

  • relearning_ learning it faster implies something was still remembered 

• factors affecting it

  • __- activation of memory associations

    • connections and prompts

  • __ __: we remember best when the context is similar

    • Ex: scuba diving

  • __ __ memory: recall is best when the mental state is similar

    • Ex: study in quiet place

__: can occur at any point

• due to encoding failure

  • seen a bunch but never committed to memory

• storage decay

  • Ebbinghaus “forgetting curve”

  • memory fades/decays over time

• retrieval failure

  • “tip of the tongue”

  • __ interference; old info hinders recall of new info

  • __ interference: new info hinders call of old info

retrieval

priming

context effect

state dependent

forgetting

proactive interference

retroactive interference

__ __:

• memories are malleable over time

• the way questions are asked can be incorporated into our memory of the event

• the misinformation effect

  • Ex: smashed vs bumped in car accident 

  • Ex: how fast when it ran stop sign or when it turned right—— more likely to recall stop sign even though it didn’t happen

• our “__ __” is very weak

  • can lead to suggestions or pressure making new false memories 

    • Ex: child abuse or admitting to crimes not committed

  • __ __; mistakes involving the source of memeory 

memory construction

source memory

source amnesia

___: mental activities associated with processing and understanding, remembering, learning, and communicating

• “thinking”

How are thoughts formed

• info sensation, emotions/memories, thoughts, then behavior 

how do we use Knowlege efficently:

• __: mental grouping of similar objects, events, and ideas and people

  • allows us to simplify and organize

  • defined by attributes and prototype

__ concept; things that naturally occur

• Ex: snow

__ concept: well defined by characteristics 

• Ex: geometry

__: mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concept

__ __: assumption about how individuals in certain roles will behave

__ __ (cognitive script): set of behaviors that can feel like a routine

cognition

concepts

natural

artificial

schema

role schema

event schema

what strategies do we use to solve problems

• trial and error

• __: step by step procedure that guarantees a solution

• __: a mental shortcut

  • potentially problematic heretics

  • __ __: judging the likelihood of an event in terms of how well it represents particular prototypes

  • __ __: estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

___: fast automatic feelings and thoughts

• based on experience

• intuition seems to work unconsciously

algorithm

heuristic

representative heuristics

availability heuristic

intution

other obstacles to problem solving

__: people tend to accept data that supports their hypothesis but ignore Info that’s inconsistent with it

__: the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

__: the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

__ __: tendency to perceive events as obvious after the fact

• “ i knew it all along”

__ __: clinging to beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

• cat trapped in wall—- we assume its scared not nonexistent

__: the way an issue is framed can affect judgments

__ __: focusing on one piece of info when making a decision

• 1000$ shirt vs 100$, 100$ seems reasonable

confirmation bias

fixation

functional fixedness

hindsight bias

belief preservation

framing

anchoring bias

__ __ proposed the general intelligence factor g

according to Howard Gardner, there are at least __ independent intelligence

early attempts to measure IQ focused on ___ , sensory acuity and _time

Alfred Binet developed test to identify special needs children

• Intelligence quotient= (mental age/chronological age) x 100

• child would complete tasks until they failed consistently but problem was it was less effective as you got older 

Charles spearman

8

head circumference

reaction time

__ intelligence: types of basic intelligence that makes learning of all sorts quick and through

• ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

• used when solving complex, abstract challenges in your daily life

__ intelligence: type of intellectual ability that reflects accumulated learning

• acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it

• used when learning, remembering, and recalling

• helps us overcome concrete, straight forward problems

fluid 

crystalized

__ intelligence: involve abstract planning, strategy selection, focused attention, and information processing as well as verbal and logical skills

• aka school smarts

__ intelligence: involves the capacity to be intellectually flexible and innovative 

• aka divergent thinking

• peaks around 30 and decline similar to fluid

__ intelligence: skills used in everyday problem solving

• aka common sense or street smarts

• behavior for real life

• not measured by IQ test and does not correlate

different forms of intelligence follow different developmental trajectories

• practical intelligence stays high

analytical

creative

practical

measuring intelligence

• Wechsler intelligence scales are most commonly used

  • consist of __ and _ scale

• Wechsler believed that intelligence entailed global capacity of a person to act purposefully to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment 

principle of test construction

__: the manner of administration coring, and interpretation of result is consistent

__; it involves providing a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups such as age groups 

IQ test scores are ___ __

• most people are between 85 and 115

• gifted program is __

• special ed is __

verbal

performance

normally distributed

standardized

norming

130

70

important factors of any psychological test

• ___: 

  • does the test yield consistent results

  • how would a psychologist show that a test is reliable

  • test retest reliability

• ___:

  • does the test measure what its supposed to measure

  • ____ test measures capacity to learn

  • ____ test measures what has been learned 

How valid are IQ tests

• IQ test correlate well with ___ achievement

• Ex: Pygmalion in the classroom

  • gives kids IQ test and tell teachers of “select students” who preformed best but were randomly selected  

  • leads teacher to further their advancement and shows power of expectations

reliability

validity

aptitude

achievement

academic

Group differences on IQ tests

• __ __ tend to score lower

  • 15 point difference

• Two possibilities

  • the tests detects not only innate differences in intelligence but also differences due to __ __

    • in a sense IQ test is biased

    • black people have different cultural experiences that explain differences in test performance 

  • the test predicts differently for one group than for another

  • __ __

    • but all major aptitude test predicts the same, regardless of ethnic group

racial minorities

cultural experiences

predictive validity

John Ogbu notes that gaps exists in countries that have __ __

• minority youth reject schools as an opportunity for advancement

• when minority’s emigrate the IQ gap ___

most plausible explanation for racial gaps is cultural experience and expectations not innate differences

__ now outperform _ at all levels of formal education

• maybe not inherently smarter but recent movements have given much encouragement towards them at the expense of guys

___: the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable

__ thinking: narrowing down to one right answer

__ thinking: generating many possible solutions

__ __: our left hemisphere - logical, rational, meaning making) inhibits creativity

status gaps

fades

girls

creativity

convergent thinking

divergent thinking

intriguing hypothesis

__: our awareness of ourselves and our environment

• we selectively attend to only a fraction of our environment

__ __: failing to see things when our attendance is directed elsewhere

__ __: failing to notice changes in our environment

__ __: our mind simultaneously processes info on a conscious track and an unconscious track as we organize and interpret info

• Ex: we encode explicit memories through conscious efforts but implicit memories like time, space, and frequency through automatic processing

• We have a “gut intrinsic” based on unconscious tendencies we work through

• blindsight- damage to occipital cortex, can’t report seeing anything but are able to move around objects in way

conscious

inattentional blindness

change blindness

dual processing

biological rhythms

__ __: biological processes that vary over 24 hours

• Ex: body temp., hormones, sleep/wake cycle

• controlled by  ___ __ __ and our environment 

• darkness triggers an increase in __

  • bright light supresses it 

circadian rhythm

supra-chiasmatic nucleus

melanin

stage 1 of sleep:

__ __: brief hallucinations that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep

• alpha waves

stage 2

__ __: short bursts of brain activity that help us learn and store memories

stage 3 and 4

deep sleep and early in the night

you continuously cycle through these stages at night 

__ __ __: (REM) person appears to be deep asleep but EEG, HR, Bp, respiration are all similar to wakeful sleep

“ paradoxical sleep”

person is incapable of moving

• motor impulses are blocked at the __ __

• exception is eye movement

• protects us form acting out our dreams

• if person is awaked during REM sleep they report __ dreaming

• NON REM dreams are less remarkable and less frequent

hypnagogic hallucinations

sleep spindles

spinal cord

vivid

sleep theories

• __ sleep: sleep allows the body to repair itself

• __ theory: (evolution) sleep evolved to protect us

  • keeps us hidden

  • animals most vulnerable sleep less and vice versa

• __ of _: new info is strengthened during REM sleep

• sleep to __: growth hormone is released during sleep

• sleep promotes ___ thinking

restorative

adaptive

facilitation of learning

grow

creative

effects of sleep deprivation

• can lead to ___

• more susceptible to ___

• __ impairment

• __ aches

depression

illness

cognitive

muscle

___: symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness

• sleep cycle doesn’t follow the progression through normal cycle

• person moves into REM shortly after falling asleep

• cause unknown

• hormone called hypocretin released from hypothalamus

  • modafinil drug

___: sever muscle weakness and sudden loss of voluntary muscles

__ __:

• most common form is obstructive: the muscle in the back of the throat relaxes during sleep, reducing space for air to pass through

  • common for men, mostly overweight

• __ __ __: brain stem fails to properly reorganize carbon dioxide levels during sleep leading to slower and shallower breathing

narcolepsy

cataplexy

sleep apnea

central sleep apnea

__ and _:

• primarily children

• person passes back and forth rapidly between sleep and wakefulness

• wakes up and is frightened, screaming, crying but not awake and will have no recollection

__ sleep behavior disorder

• muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur

• seems to be linked with neurogenerative disease such as Parkinson

__: increasing problem

• aging problem and growth life demands

sleepwalking and night terrors

REM sleep behavior disorder

insomnia

why do we dream

__:

• dreams are a window to our unconscious

  • things that trouble us appear in our dreams

• __ __: the surface message of a dream

  • the storyline

• __ __: the underlying meaning

  • true meaning

• dreams help us process experiences an information

• learning is impaired when REM is disrupted

• dreams stimulate the sleeping brain

• activation synthesis hypothesis

  • brain attempt to make sense of random neural activity

• __ generates electrical activity and sends it to higher brain regions (activation)

• __ __ try to make sense of this activation (synthesis)

Do we need REM sleep

• subjects were deprived of rem sleep, woken every time they started

• REM rebound - greater portion of the night is spent dreaming 

• minor psychological difficulties: anxiety, irritability, trouble concentrating

Freud

manifest

latent

pons

frontal lobe