Cells, DNA, Protein Synthesis, Mutations

Are plant and animals cells the same?

No they are similar but also different.

Cell Membrane

Thin covering that separates the inside of the cell from its external environment

Cell wall

rigid structure and provides support and structure

Is the cell wall in plant and animal cells?

No only plant cells

Cytoplasm

watery jelly like fluid in which internal organs float

What are organelles?

Special parts in the cell that carry out specific functions to ensure the cells survival

Mitochondria

power house of the cell, bean shaped, makes energy through cellular respiration, converts sugar into usable energy

Chloroplast

use light energy from the sun, carbon dioxide and water to make sugar through a process called photosynthesis

True or False

Chloroplasts are in animal cells

False

What is another name for sugar?

glucose

respiration and photosynthesis

Respiration= energy stored-energy released

Photosynthesis=sunlight-energy stored

Ribosomes

Makes proteins

Where are the ribosomes found?

float in cytoplasm or attached to ER

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

membrane covered channels, transport materials through the cytoplasm

Rough ER

Ribosomes are attached

Smooth ER

Ribosomes are not atached

Where are fats made?

Smooth ER

Vesicles

membrane-covered sacs, form at the end of the ER, transport new protein to the Golgi body

Golgi apparatus (Golgi body)

sorts and packages proteins to be transported out of the cell, packaged into vesicles and carried to the cell membrane

Vacuole

membrane covered organelle, stores water, nutrients, waste

Small vacuoles for starch and large ones for water

Plant Cells

Small Vacuoles

Animal Cells

Nucleus

controls all cell activities

The nucleus contains _______ for the cell

instructions

The nucleus determines the _______,______, and _____ of a cell

growth, division, death

nucleur membrane

Surrounds and protects the nucleus

nucleur pores

openings in nuclear membrane that control what materials leave/enter nucleus

Nucleolus

membrane free organelle, found in the nucleus, makes ribosomes

Prokaryotic organelles

are not surrounded by a membrane (one celled organisms)

Examples of a prokaryotic organelle

bacteria

Eukaryotic organelles

surrounded by a membrane

examples of a eukaryotic organelle

plant and animal cells

Cells and organisms have the same ______ but not all cells in a organism have the same _______

contents, function

There are different types of ______ and each type has a specific _________

cells, function

DNA has instructions for what?

making, running, and repairing a cell

DNA stores?

DNA stores genetic information of a organism

what does DNA stand for?

deoxyribonucleic acid

Where is DNA located/

in the nucleus

What is a double helix?

a double stranded molecule

DNA exist as _____________

2 long strands

What does a double helix look like?

shaped like a twisted ladder.

what are the sides of the ladder made of?

The sides of the ladder are made of sugar and phosphate

What are the steps of the ladder made of?

4 nitrogen bases

what are all of the nitrogen bases?

(A) Adenine

(G) Guanine

(C) Cytosine

(T) Thymine

Nitrogen base pairs

Nitrogen bases are in pairs to make the steps of the ladder

what does A pair up with

A-T

what does G pair up with?

G-C

True or False

Are pairs always the same?

True

DNA message

how DNA is arranged

The arrangement of the pairs of nitrogen bases in DNA

directs all cell activity

Chromatin

in each strand of chromatin there is one molecule of DNA

Where are chromatins?

inside the nucleus where DNA is stored

Chromosome

condensed structure that is passed on from the parents to the offspring during reproduction

How are chromosomes and chromatin related?

Chromatin coils into a compact structure called a chromosome

True or False

Every organism has the same number of chromosomes

False

every organism has a certain number of chromosomes

Where are chromosomes located?

Chromosomes are in pairs in the nucleus

How many chromosomes do humans have?

46 (23 pairs)

How many chromosomes do fruit flies have?

8 (4 pairs)

Genes

small segments of DNA located at specific places on a chromosome. Has instructions to make a specific protein.

How long is a gene?

Very in length hundred-thousand bases

How many genes are in each chromosome?

Each chromosome has thousands of genes.

How many genes do humans have?

25000 genes

How many proteins do humans have?

90000 proteins.

Proteins

Proteins determine the functions of cells.

Each cell in your body contains the same _________ ____________ but not all cells have the same __________

genetic, information, function

Why do cells have different functions?

Cells have different functions because only specific genes are "read" in each type of cell, meaning each type of cell makes specific proteins

How do cells ensure that the right proteins are made for specific functions, such as muscle movement?

proteins needed to make muscles work are made only in muscle cells

Enzymes

specialized proteins that speed up chemical reaction

Hormones

proteins that act as chemical messengers

what is a example of a hormone?

growth hormone

make sure cells have enough nutrients for division

How are proteins produced? 9 Steps

1. The nucleus receives a chemical signal to make a specific protein

2. DNA message is copied into RNA

3. RNA leaves through a nuclear pore

4. RNA message is delivered to the ribosomes

Ribosomes make the protein

5. The manufactured protein enter the ER

6. A vesicle forms of the end of the ER carries the proteins to the Golgi body

7. The Golgi body packages proteins for transport out of the cell

8. A vesicle forms off the end of the Golgi body to carry the protein to the cell membrane

9. the vesicle attaches to the cell membrane and its protein contents are released out of the cell

Gene mutations

a change in the specific order of the nitrogen bases that make a specific gene

types of genetic mutations. 3

Deletion

Addition

Substitution

Deletion

one base is missing

Addition

one base is added

Substitution

one base is substituted for another

Proteins produced by DNA mutations can be _____________, __________, ___________

positive

negative

neutral

positive mutation

benefits the organism

negative mutation

harm the organism

neutral mutation

have no effect on the organism

Positive mutation examples

some people have a mutation that makes them resistant to HIV and AIDS

Positive mutation example

some plants are resistant to bacteria and fungal infections

Negative mutation examples

sickle cell anemia which makes abnormally shaped red blood cells that cannot carry oxygen efficiently

Negative mutation examples

cystic fibrosis the body does not correctly make proteins that transport chloride ions into and out of the cell so mucus builds up

Neutral mutation example

the gene mutaion that causes the white coat of spirit bears has non significant effec on its survival

Mutagens

factors that can cause mutations in DNA

Mutagen examples

cigarette smoke, UV rays, Household chemicals, radiation, pollutants

what does damaged DNA result in?

Damaged DNA results in incorrect production of proteins

gene therapy

reasearchers replace a mutated gene with a healthy copy of the gene

Why is gene therapy un common?

it is risky and is only tested on diseases without a known cause

What is asexual reproduction?

A type of reproduction that involves only one parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.

Key characteristics of asexual reproduction

1. Involves a single parent organism.

2. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones).

3. Does not involve the fusion of gametes (sex cells).

4. Occurs rapidly and produces a large number of offspring.

What are the common types of asexual reproduction?

1. Binary Fission

2. Budding

3. Fragmentation

4. Vegetative Reproduction (in plants)

5. Spore Formation

Binary Fission

A form of asexual reproduction where a single celled organism divides into two equal halves, each becoming a new organism.

Example: Bacteria, Amoeba

Budding

Asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particular site.

Example: Yeast, Hydra

Fragmentation

Asexual reproduction where a parent organism breaks into fragments, and each fragment develops into a new, complete individual.

Example: Starfish, flatworms, some algae

Vegetative Reproduction

Asexual reproduction in plants where new plants grow from vegetative parts like stems, roots, or leaves, without seeds or spores.

Examples:

• Runners/Stolons: Strawberries

• Tubers: Potatoes

• Rhizomes: Ginger

• Bulbs: Onions

• Cuttings: Roses, Pothos

Spore Formation

Asexual reproduction where an organism produces specialized reproductive cells called spores, which can develop into new individuals under favorable conditions.

Example: Fungi (e.g., bread mold), ferns, mosses