Critical Reasoning 1.3 – Deduction and Induction

Vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms and concepts from the lecture on deduction and induction in critical reasoning.

Truth Correspondence Theory

The view that a statement is true if, and only if, it accurately reflects or matches the actual state of the world.

Truth Coherence Theory

The view that a statement is true when it logically coheres—i.e., fits consistently and entailingly—within a larger web of accepted propositions.

Bullshit (philosophical sense)

Discourse intended to bypass concern for truth altogether, making truth-value irrelevant to belief or persuasion.

Bald-Faced Lie

A deliberate, obvious falsehood uttered with full awareness that both speaker and listener know it is false.

Deductive Argument

An argument that claims the conclusion must follow with absolute certainty if the premises are true.

Inductive Argument

An argument that claims the conclusion probably follows; if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely but not guaranteed.

Inferential Claim

The strength of support the premises purport to provide to the conclusion—absolute in deduction, probable in induction.

Premise

A supporting statement offered as evidence for a conclusion within an argument.

Conclusion

The statement an argument is trying to prove, purportedly supported by its premises.

Deductive Indicator Words

Signal terms such as "necessarily," "certainly," "absolutely," and "definitely" that often mark deductive reasoning.

Inductive Indicator Words

Signal terms such as "probably," "likely," "plausibly," and "reasonable to conclude that" that often mark inductive reasoning.

Argument Based on Mathematics

A deductive argument whose reasoning relies chiefly on arithmetic or quantitative calculation.

Argument from Definition

A deductive argument whose conclusion is guaranteed by the meanings of the terms involved.

Categorical Syllogism

A deductive form using statements that begin with ‘all,’ ‘no,’ or ‘some’ to relate classes (e.g., All A are B; C is A; therefore C is B).

Hypothetical Syllogism

A deductive form that includes at least one ‘if…then…’ (conditional) statement as a premise.

Disjunctive Syllogism

A deductive form using an ‘either…or…’ premise combined with the denial of one alternative to conclude the truth of the other.

Prediction (Inductive Form)

An inductive argument that moves from patterns in past events to a claim about the future.

Argument from Analogy

An inductive argument that infers further similarity between two things because they share known similarities.

Generalization

An inductive argument that infers a property of an entire group based on a sample of its members.

Argument from Authority

An inductive argument that accepts a claim as true because an alleged expert or witness states it.

Argument Based on Signs

An inductive argument that reasons from the information a sign provides to a conclusion about the situation it denotes.

Causal Inference

An inductive argument that moves from cause to effect or from observed effect to inferred cause.

Karl Popper

Philosopher who proposed falsifiability as the key criterion demarcating scientific from non-scientific claims.

Falsification Theory

Popper’s view that science advances by formulating hypotheses and rigorously trying to refute them rather than confirm them.

Modus Tollens

A valid deductive form: If P then Q; not Q; therefore not P—central to Popper’s falsification model.

Affirming the Consequent

A formal fallacy: If P then Q; Q; therefore P—invalid yet often misused to (incorrectly) confirm hypotheses.

Scientific Induction

The use of inductive reasoning to discover general laws from specific empirical observations.

Scientific Deduction

The application of established general laws to predict or explain specific cases with certainty.

Strength of the Inferential Link

The degree to which premises support the conclusion—absolute necessity in deduction, high probability in induction.