Unit 3: Development and Learning

Associative Learning

A type of learning in which an individual forms connections between things that occur simultaneously.

Habituation

When organisms get used to repeated stimulus and show a weakened response to them.

Classical Conditioning

A learning where two stimuli are linked, allowing anticipation of events.

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally causes a response without any prior learning.

Unconditioned Response

A natural reaction to a stimulus that happens without any prior learning.

Conditioned Stimulus

A neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus multiple times, starts to cause a response.

Conditioned Response

A learned reaction that happens when a conditioned stimulus is presented, due to a connection with an unconditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial learning of an association.

Extinction

When a conditioned response begins to diminish because the conditioned stimulus repeatedly occurs without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

When a conditioned response that was previously stopped reappears after a break.

Stimulus Discrimination

Being able to distinguish between similar stimuli and respond differently to them.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to react to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus, due to the conditioning process.

High-Order Conditioning

A process where a conditioned stimulus is used to make new, neutral stimuli trigger the same response.

Counterconditioning

Modifying a learned reaction to something more desirable by attaching it to a different experience.

Taste Aversion

A learned connection between the taste of food and feeling sick.

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things.

Biological Preparedness

The tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between stimuli and responses.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning where behavior is influenced by consequences; reinforcement or punishment.

The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement

Any outcome that makes a behavior more likely to occur.

Primary Reinforcers

Things we naturally like, such as food or water.

Secondary Reinforcers

Things we learn to like because they are connected to primary reinforcers or other things.

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to recognize different stimuli and react appropriately based on the absence or presence of reinforcement.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency to react similarly to stimuli linked to the same reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase reoccurrence.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an undesirable stimulus after a behavior to increase reoccurrence.

Punishment

Any consequence/outcome that decreases the chances of behavior reoccurring.

Positive Punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the chances of it reoccurring.

Negative Punishment

Removing an desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease its chances of reoccurrence.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors resembling a desired one to build a complex skill.

Instinctive Drift

Animals return to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through operant conditioning.

Superstitious Behavior

Unintended reinforcement of behaviors, causing the belief that they lead to good outcomes.

Reinforcement Schedules

Dictate when and how often reinforcement is given, affecting rate and persistance of behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior some of the time, leading to slower extinction but less consistent responses.

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time has passed from the previous reinforcement, leading to predictable behavior.

Variable Interval

Reinforcement is given after unpredictable intervals of time, resulting in a steady, moderate response rate.

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses, resulting in a high response rate with brief pauses after reinforcement.

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses, resulting in a high, steady response rate.

Learned Helplessness

A belief of having no control over one’s circumstances, developed through repeated exposure to uncontrollable situations, resulting in a lack of effort to change.

Social Learning Theory

Theory that highlights the importance of learning by watching and copying others behaviors, as well as how thinking processes play a role in learning social settings.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by watching the outcomes of others’ actions without personally facing the consequences.

Insight Learning

A sudden understanding of a problem that leads to a solution without prior trial and error.

Latent Learning

Learning that happens without clear reinforcement or motivation. It is shown only when there is a reason to apply it.

Cognitive Maps

Mental images of spatial relationships that help people navigate and understand surroundings.

Developmental Psychology

The scientific study of how and why people change over the course of their life.

Nature and Nurture

How genetics vs. experiences shape development

Continuity and Stages

Continuity: Changes in development that are slow and steady. They continue to build off of each other.

Stage Theories: Suggests that developmental changes occur rapidly with sudden shifts.

Stability and Change

Looks at how and why people stay the same in some aspects but adapt in others throughout life.

Longitudinal Research

Studying the same people overtime, allowing direct observation of behaviors and abilities changing overtime.

Cross-Sectional Research

Studying different groups of various ages at the same point in time. Comparing differences and similarities.

Psychosocial Development

Theory that people pass through a series of stages, each with a specific conflict that adds to a part of personality.

Prenatal Development

The process of growth and development within the womb.

Teratogens

Substances that can cause abnormalities or birth defects when a fetus is exposed to them during prenatal development.

Reflexes

Automatic, instinctual responses that people are born with to aid in survival.

Rooting Reflex

Automatic response in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheek, helping them locate and latch onto the mother’s breast.

Maturation

The biological process of growth in which orderly changes in behavior occur due to genetics.

Developmental Milestones

Important skills or behaviors that the majority of children achieve by a certain age.

Sensitive Period

A critical phase of early development when the brain is particularly susceptible to learning skills, making it easier to obtain them.

Fine Motor Coordination

The ability to control small muscle movements used for tasks like writing and using utensils with precision.

Gross Motor Coordination

The ability to control large muscle movements, used for tasks like walking, jumping, and throwing with balance and strength.

Visual Cliff

An experimental setup was used to study infants' depth perception. It featured the illusion of a drop-off to test whether infants could perceive and avoid it.

Puberty

The phase of physical and hormonal changes during adolescence that lead to sexual maturity.

Adolescent Growth Spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight that happens during puberty, as it is caused by hormonal changes.

Menopause

The natural stage occurring when a woman’s menstrual cycle ends, marked by hormonal changes and the end of fertility.

Sex

The biologically influenced characteristics by which male, female, and intersex is defined.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Gender

The attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a culture associates with a persons sex.

Sexual Orientation

Someones sexual and emotional attraction to another person as well as the behavior resulting from the attraction.

Gender Identity

One’s internal concept of self as male, female, or neither.

Gender Roles

Societal norms for behavior, attitudes, and activities based on being male or female.

Gender Typing

The process by which children learn and adopt behaviors/interests considered appropriate for their gender based on cultural norms.

Ecological Systems Theory

A child’s development is impacted by multiple parts of the environmental system including: immediate family, large communities, and overall culture/society.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

A strict form of parenting with high expectations and rigid rules. There is a lot of punishment and little display of warmth.

Permissive Parenting Style

A relaxed form of parenting in which the parent displays warmth and responsiveness. They have few rules and low expectations.

Authoritative Parenting Style

A balanced form of parenting, combining high expectations with warmth and support.

Temperament

The natural traits that affect how children react to their environment, including activity level, emotional responses, and adaptability.

Imprinting

A fast and instinctive form of early learning where animals form strong attachment to the first moving thing they see.

Contact Comfort

A feeling of security and emotional relief from physical contact.

Separation Anxiety

A distress response experienced by infants/young children when separated from their main caregiver.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of behavior that shape how children bond with caregivers, impacting future relationships.

Secure Attachment

A form of attachment where children feel confident and trust that their caregiver will provide support.

Avoidant Attachment

A form of attachment where children display independence and avoid seeking comfort from a caregiver.

Anxious Attachment

A form of attachment where children are overly clingy and anxious when separated from their caregiver.