Exam 3 Developmental Psych 250 umich

The effects of the declining age of puberty:

Boys: positive self image, more self-confident, independent

Girls: isolation, more anxiety and self consciousness

Body Image and Self Esteem in Adolescents:

-Susan Harper's research:

-feelings of competence in 5 domains relates to overall self esteem (scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, athletic skills, peer likeability, appearance)

>for adolescents, contentment with one's appearance outweighs all the others

Body Concerns for Boys and Girls:

-Boys: concerned with gaining muscle

-Girls: concerned with losing weight

>peer pressure

>media

Eating Disorders: Anorexia

-affects 1 in 1000 teens (mostly female)

-self starvation to being 85% or less of healthy body weight

>starvation can destroy body organs and cause death

>medical emergencies require hospitalization (2/3 of ideal weight or less)

-menstruation ceases

-distorted body image

Eating Disorders: Bulimia

-characterized by at least biweekly cycles of binging and purging

>in addition to forced vomiting, purging may include taking laxatives and/or diuretics, fasting and excess exercise

-major consequences: mouth sores, loss of tooth enamel, esophageal ulcers and esophageal cancer

-prevalence is increasing

Eating Disorders: Risk Factors

-strong hereditary component, especially in girls

-temperamental tendency:

>to be anxious

>to have low self worth

>to have a great need for approval

>an inability to express legitimate needs

Eating Disorders: Interventions:

-target at risk girls prone to depression and low self worth who subscribe to the thin ideal

First sexual desires:

-first sexual feelings programmed by adrenal androgens at about age 10

-an interplay of nature (androgens) and nurture *how we and others react to body changes) heightens sex hormone levels.

Who is having sex?

-75% of girls and 56% of boys report first sex with steady partner

-1/5 have sex outside of a committed relationship

-research with ohio teens engaging in noncommitted sex:

>for girls having noncommitted sex with a number of partners is a risk factor for depression

>for boys having noncommitted sex with a number of partners promotes high self esteem

Sexual Double standard:

-cultural code that gives men greater sexual freedom than women

>stereotype: girls want a relationship, boys want sex

-research shows that both boys and girls put highest priority on intimacy

Risks of Sexual Maturation:

-unwanted pregnancy

-STI

>teens age 14+ can obtain treatment of STIs without parental consent

-rates in US are much higher than in other developed countries

How Adolescence Came to Be:

-due to increased rates of HS attendance, intellectual skills of adolescents increased

>caused gap with mostly less educated, immigrant parents

>adolescents began spending less time w/ parents + more as a group

-w/ recognition of teen as lucrative market, businesses began targeting the group, developing an adolescent culture

-the 60s and 70s lead to more baby boomer teens who rejected conventional values (transformed views of marriage, gender and ways of life)

Piaget's Formal Operational Stage:

-final stage of cognitive growth (age 12)

> can think logically about concepts and hypothetical possibilities, abstractly about ideas, reason like "real scientists."

>reaching this stage allows teens to act like an adult

-Reaching this stage allows ten to:

>think hypothetically and scientifically, debate no matter what personal beliefs are, attempt to articulate personal wishes strongly

-not all teens reach this stage. occurs mainly in Western cultures

Kholberg's Stages of Moral Judgment

-preconventional (no internal moral sense)

>responses focused on personal benefits and punishments

-conventional(most adults are here)

>responses focused on obeying society's rules and norms

-post conventional (rarely achieved at any age)

>responses focus on inner moral guidelines apart from society

Elkind's Adolescent Egocentrism

-developed from Piaget's formal operations

-attempt to make sense of teens emotional states

-adolescents become aware of the flaws of others, becoming obsessed with what others think of them

-characteristics: think their own actions are the center of everyone else's thoughts, are hyper sensitive to what others think, believe they are unique in the world

-imaginary audience

-personal fable

3 aspects of storm and stress:

-in emotionally charged situations, teens become more vulnerable to negative peer pressure (immediate gratification over future rewards)

-risk takers: adolescents are risk takers

-emotional: teens live in an intense emotional plane, shifting from euphoria to deep depression (but they are not emotionally disturbed)

>most teens are optimistic about the future

Identifying at risk teens:

-tend to have:

>prior emotional regulation difficulties (problems with executive functions)

>poor family relationships (an authoritative discipline style is recommended)

>live in non-nurturing environment (school peer hierarchies promote bullying; living in dangerous neighborhoods)

Which teens flourish?

Qualities that promote thriving:

-superior executive functions

-having a mentor

-close family relationships

-prosocial friends

-academic success

-strong schools + communities rich in nurturing activities

-developing a passion/having a special talent

-a strong religious faith + commitment

Interventions to At Risk Teens:

-don't punish teens as if they re mentally like adults

>focus on rehabilitation

-don't taint people w/ criminal record for minor teenage experimentation

>reconsider 0 tolerance

-provide activities that capitalize on adolescents' strengths

>encourage youth development programs

-change HS to provide better adolescent fit

>consider teen sleep patterns and hands on learning

Changes in Adolescent-Parent relationship

-increasing autonomy granted by parents

>monitoring and tracking seems to have better outcomes than trying to maintain strict control

-increased emotional and physical distance between teens and parents, but they still remain close

-teens' most positive experiences are with their families, but they have significant number of fights

-teens feel upbeat w/ friends

Quality of Adolescent-parent relationship

-report less time w/ father, feel closer to mother, father-daughter relationships are most different, mother-daughter relationships are closest but marked by conflict

-adolescents are right about level of conflict

Parent-Adolescent Conflict:

-only 20% of families w/ adolescents experience high levels of conflict

-highest levels of conflict early on, with declining levels later, but intensity increases

-most conflicts occur around ordinary events like hw, curfews etc.

-a moderate level of conflict promotes identity development

Cultural Variations of Adolescence:

-acculturation may be an issue w/ immigrant adolescents

-peer group socialization theory indicates that immigrant adolescent-parent relationship disagreements may be based on fundamental disagreements of world views

-family pressures

-immigrant paradox: some immigrant adolescents dealing with disadvantages flourish

Understanding Adolescence worldwide:

-in some impoverished nations, adolescence doesn't exist

-according to UN, 1 million children enter sex trade/year

-others are forced to become soldiers as young as 8-10

-ultimately adolescence doesn't exist as well as a reasonable adult life

Daily life for children varies across cultures

-Taiwanese children spend time in academics outside school and activities that are chosen/directed by adults

-American children spend more time in self chosen activities, particularly sports, less homework and more free time

American youth: Typical Free time

-playing or hanging out

-structured activities

-using media

Free Time:

-unstructured time has decreased

-safety concerns, media usage, paid work (teens)

Structured Time:

-the myth of over scheduling

>40% of children 5-18 don't participate in any activities

> only 3-6% of youth spend more than 20 hrs/week in organized activities

-involvement in the activities is related to:

>higher levels of achievement in school, lower levels of substance abuse, better overall psychological adjustment

Positive Youth Development:

-Deficit model of youth development

-positive youth development:

>help young people reach their full potential

>shift focus from fixing problems to preventing them - need to understand where problems come from

-developmental assets (creative activities that help a child grow up) are the building blocks that lead to positive outcomes

Organized Sports:

-positive adult role model in coaches

-risks of injury:

>concussion has been overlooked until recently

>33 states have enacted legislation to increase education in training opportunities for risk of concussion and treatment

Effects of Concussion:

-symptoms: lossof consciousness, dizziness,vomiting, fatigue

-long term: cognitive function,motor skills, mental health issues

-impacts even without concussion can affect brain activity

Seeing Eye to Eye with a Coach

-mismatch in coach's demands and children's abilities can lead to frustration and stress

>many coaches don't understand development and so cannot adjust to child's level

-70% of children drop out of sports by age 13

-keeping the fun, teamwork and learning rather than focusing on winning

Creative Activities:

-painting, music, dance, drama

-no support for the claim that music improves intelligence

-art enrichment programs:

>benefit preschoolers, english language learners

>verbal + nonverbal aspects

>developing socio-emotional and self regulation skills

>reflect cultural diversity (self confidence)

Important Non-Parental Adults:

-there are many other people than just parents and peers whom children consider important to them.

>grandparents, aunts, uncles, older siblings, cousins, teachers, coaches, counselors...

-girls are more likely to have a VIP (very important person) and report more enjoyment from the relationship

Benefits of VIP:

-support through a stressful experience

-suport for educational achievement

-role models

-confidantes

-provides an adult point of view w/ less judgmental approach to the child/teen

-NOT a substitute, but a unique source of support

Media Use:

-television, computers, phones, books, magazines

-TV is still most used

>4.5 hours of TV compared to 1hr 45 min exercise and 40 min reading

>most rules are about content not quality

>however, 21% watch no TV on average daily

Multitasking:

-doing several different activities at the same time, often involving several forms of media

>reaction time for people talking/texting while driving is slower than drunk drivers

-children and teens use electronic media for almost 7.5 hours per day. Because they are used to more than one media source at a time, this accounted for 10 hours 45 minutes of media content daily.

Effects of Media on Physical Development:

-more TV is linked to obesity

>less exercise, advertisement for unhealthy food, mindless eating

-promotes the "twin ideal" which contributes to eating disorders

Media and Cognitive Development:

-Educational TV may help improve cognitive functioning and academic performance-but NOT infants

>Sesame Street, Blue Clues

>Babies who watched videotapes designed specifically to improve cognitive development, such as Baby Einstein videos had smaller vocabularies at age 2 than those who did not

How does TV interfere?

-background TV disrupts play-shortens play episodes and ability to focus

>orienting response: we focus on new, moving, surprising things

-negative effects of entertainment TV

>less time spending on academics

>multitasking decreases learning

>more distractible and impulsive in general

Media and Social Development:

-watching violence/aggression promotes aggression in young viewers

>violent video games have a stronger effect

>may develop hostile attributional bias

-on the other hand, prosocial media increasing prosocial behavior

Media and Self Concept:

-self esteem can be promoted by shows such as Mr. Roger's Neighborhood

-Self esteem can be harmed by presentations of the "thin ideal"

-limited self complexity can harm self esteem

>lack of options for who to be based on what media portray

>lack of diversity and stereotyped roles for minorities is harmful to minority groups

Media Literacy:

-the skills to understand the underlying purposes and messages of media

>smoking in TV/movies especially influences children to smoke

Using Media Wisely:

-parental guidance:

>active mediation and guidance- talk with them about what they watch

>setting limitations

>coviewing with the child

>>discussing messages from media can reduce the impact of violence and aggression

The Effect of Children Outside

-less obesity

-greater ability to focus attention

-greater self discipline

-lower levels of distress

-higher self worth

-positive and protective attitudes toward the natural world

Stress:

-(extreme) stress responses during development can have lasting impacts

>developing brain, cardiovascular system, immune system, metabolic control system

-stress is anything that places excessive demands on our ability to cope

-fight or flight response effective for short term threats, exhausting for long term stress

Normative Stress:

-those that are predictable and that most children go through

>help build confidence and coping skills

Non-Normative Stress:

-the experience of unusual and unexpected distressing events

>often overwhelming can be tolerated with support

Toxic Stress:

-requires strong, frequent and prolonged activation of the body's stress response system without any protective buffering from a supportive adult relationship

>victims of abuse, parents who are substance abusers, ongoing discrimination

>impairs learning, behavior, physical and mental well being

Coping:

-the cognitive and behavioral efforts made to master, tolerate or reduce external and internal demands

Coping: Problem Focused Strategies:

-focuses on solving a stressful problem

Coping: Emotion Focused Strategies:

-focuses on reducing or managing emotional stress

Signs of Stress:

-regression to earlier behaviors

-aggression

-clinginess

-trouble paying attention

-physcial symptoms, such as upset stomach

Helping Children with Stress:

-help the child figure out how to solve the problem if possible

-help the child redefine the problem-for example, something might be a challenge rather than a burden

-listen and offer comfort

-teach relaxation activities

-get professional help

Illnesses and Other Health Threats:

-importance of regular checkups

-teach healthy habits: hand washing, tooth brushing, sneezing into crook of your arm

-importance of immunizations

HPV

-most common STI-at least 50% of sexually active men and women will be infected at same time

>90% of cases the virus is flushed within 2 years

-2 forms are associated with 70% of cervical cancer cases and 90% of anogenital warts

HPV Vaccine:

-recommended for girls 11-13 and boys 11-12

-there are over 120 types of HPV

>15 are "high risk" sexually transmitted

>the vaccine treats two of these (16 and 18)

Chronic Illnesses:

-long lasting , do not resolve themselves, cannot be completely cured

>asthma, diabetes, sickle cell anemia etc.

-15% to 18% of children in the US live with at least one of these conditions

-pediatric psychologists and child life specialists can help both children and their families

Effects of Chronic Illness:

-lack of peers

>fear of catching illness, missing school, not able to participate

>disfigurement-stunted growth, loss of hair

-lack of autonomy:

>especially for teens

>may rebel against medical routine

Environmental Toxins and Threats:

-the environmental may account for 25% to 40% of the global burden of disease

-children are more vulnerable than adults to environmental toxins

-differential exposure to toxins (eg lead)

>12% of black children

>2% of white and mexican american children

Effects of Toxins on Children:

-environmental hazards include asbestos, dioxin, household, chemicals, lead...

-lead: interferes with cognitive functioning

-radiation and pesticides: may be related to childhood cancers

-fossil feuls; increased incidence of asthma

Smoking, Alcohol and Drugs:

-2% of 8th graders, 6% of tenth graders and 10% 12th graders smoke daily (more than twice as many white adolescents as black or hispanic adolescents)

-6% of 8th graders, 15% of 10th graders, and 22% of 12th graders have 5 or more alcoholic beverages in a row

-9% of 8th graders, 9% of 10th graders and 25% of 12th graders use illicit drugs

-Trends:

-significant decrease in cigarette and alcohol use, marijuana use is on the rise

Binge Drinking:

-much of teens' alcohol consumption is binge drinking

-risks: motor vehicle accidents, injuries, fighting

>longer exposure to alcohol if started young

Poverty is related to:

-Race: most low income children are white, but 12% of white children, 35% of hispanic children and 39% of black children live in poverty

-single parenting: 60% of children in single parent families live in poverty

-age: children under the age of 6 are more likely to live in poverty

Risks of Poverty:

-lack of adequate health services and poor nutrition contribute to prenatal problems and premature birth

-high rates of depression in parents

-parents provide less stimulation

-parental discipline is more punitive

-exposure to family violence

-dangerous neighborhoods

Outcomes of Poverty:

-higher levels of:

>mental retardation and developmental delay

>learning disabilities

>failure in school

>health problems

>behavior problems

-can affect the neural wiring and physical structures of the brain

Trauma:

-a traumatic event is one that a child either witnesses or is involved in that is perceived as extremely threatening

-more than 2/3 of children report experiencing at least 1 traumatic event before age 16:

>domestic violence, physical/sexual abuse, neglect, natural disasters, school violence, medical trauma, terrorism, refugee and war zone trauma

Effects of Trauma:

-immediate reactions:

>fears, separation anxiety, sleep disturbances or nightmares, loss of interest in normal activities, lack of concentration, anger, sadness, somatic complaints (such as stomachaches or headaches)

-long term reactions

>PTSD

Helping Traumatized Children:

-parental support

-cognitive behavioral therapy

-play therapy and/or art therapy

Child Abuse and Neglect: physical abuse:

-a child's body is injured as a result of hitting, kicking, shaking, burning or other use of force

Child Abuse and Neglect: Sexual Abuse:

-engaging a child in sexual acts, including fondling, rape and exposing a child to other sexual activities

Child Abuse and Neglect: Emotional Abuse:

-harm to a child's self worth or emotional well being such as name calling, shamingm rejection, withold love, and threatening

Child Abuse and Neglect: Neglect:

-failure to meet a child's basic needs including housing, food, clothing, education and access to medical care

What is done with a report of abuse?

-is it covered by legislation?

-CPS

>substantiated, indicated, unsubstantiated

-25.7% of investigations are substantiated

-children may be removed, family provided with services

Incidence of Maltreatment:

-on average 4 children in US die per day due to abuse or neglect

-highest rate of child abuse is before age 3 (34%)

Perpetrators of AbusE;

-81.3% by parent(s)

-6.1% by another relative of victim, a group home staff member, day care provider, or foster parents

-women are more responsible for neglect and men for abuse

-higher levels in low income families

>due to stress

>due to higher contact w/ mandatory reporting industries

Sexual Abuse:

-most underreported

-most often by someone they know and frequently threatened not to tell

>boys are less likely to disclose than girls

-the US children are being sold for sex not only on streets by pimps but via Craigslist and at truck stops across the country

Impact of child Abuse:

-sexual abuse has been associated with physical health problems as well higher rates of depression, anxiety disorders, antisocial behavior, substance abuse and attempted suicides

-the outcomes of physical abuse and neglect aren't clear

-inadequate parenting, domestic violence, poverty and abuse occur together, multiplying the amount of stress that a child has to deal with

-30% of children with a history of abuse abuse their own children

Racism:

-a pervasive system of advantage based on race

>may be overt or covert

Stereotype:

fixed belief about a specific group.

Prejudice:

negative attitudes about a specific group

Discrimination:

negative behavior directed at that group

Impacts of Racism

-for adolescents, the experience of racism is linked with lower levels of self esteem, higher levels of depression and anxiety and conduct disorders

-both parental support and racial socialization improve the outcomes for children who have experienced racial discrimination

School interventions for Racism:

-multicultural education: not super effective

-antibias social cognitive skills training

>teaching about prejudice and discrimination

-cooperative learning experiences

>promotes cross-race interactions and friendships

Mental Health: Mood Disorders:

-depression, bipolar

Mental Health: Anxiety Disorders:

-generalized anxiety disorder

-separation anxiety disorder

-panic anxiety

-OCD

-phobias

-PTSD

Mental Health: Tic Disorders:

-Tourrettes

Mental Health: Psychotic Disorders:

-childhood schizophrenia

Resilience:

-the ability to bunce back despite negative life circumstances

-"ordinary magic" - resilience results from:

>connection to competent and caring adults

>cognitive and self regulation skills

>positive views of self

>motivation to be effective in the environment

Emergent Adulthood:

-defined by testing out different possibilities of developing self

>not a universal stage of life; only exists for a minority of young people

>begins after HS and tapers off by late teens

>often marked by high levels of optimism

Challenges and Changes in Emergent Adulthood:

-this stage of life is typically considered the most challenging and change-inducing stage of life based on:

>the need to recenter life goals:

>>parental buffer is removed

>>focus of responsibility, supporting self, and making independent decisions about life

>the change to an unstructured path:

>>college, work, marriage (as opposed to highly structured adolescence)

>>may not exist for those who commit at 18-19

Context of Emergent Adulthood:

-emergent adulthood has changed with developed world

-emerging adults are prolonging decisions on careers and marriage, therefore postponing adult roles. This is due to:

>life expectancy gains

>changes in education and work force

>cultural norms focusing on self expression

Emergent Adulthood in Southern Europe:

-due to economic issues in Spain, Italy and Greece, priority is placed onhiring men and women w/ families so it is hard for young people to find jobs

-in these countries there are strong norms against cohabiting and beginning families before marriage so many young people live with parents

-reaching full adulthood and having the financial ability to leave home often doesn't happen until their 30s

Emergent Adulthood in Scandinavian Countries:

-in these countries independence is typically encouraged in emerging adulthood due to

>college being financed by govt

>employers making efforts to hire young people

>free health care for all ages

-these factors combined make it possible for young people to leave the parents' home and successfully live independently

-in sweden it is common for young people to cohabit and have premarital children

Emergent Adulthood in US:

-US young people share similarities w/ Scandinavian countries (cohabiting, leaving home at 18, children before marriage)

-similar to S Europe countries there is far less focus on helping young people into work

>income inequalities and diversity of cultures have made transition less smooth

When does Emergent adulthood start?

-entry point-nest leaving

>reseaerch shows parent-child relationships improve after leaving

>leaving home makes people more adult

>>1 study shows that young peole who don't leave home have "arrested adulthood"

>>there is an economic dimension at play-some young people can't afford to leave

Social Clock:

-shared age norms that act as guideposts to what behaviors are appropriate at particular ages; usually set by society.

>on time: matching the normal time table

>off time: too early or too late for normal time table

When does emergent adulthood end?

-being off time in the late direction can cause physical and mental stress

-another issue is the lack of control regarding some of those developmental tasks

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage: Identity vs Role Confusion: Identity:

-the life task decidig who to be as a person in making the transition to adulthood

Erikson's Psychosocial Stage: Identity vs Role Confusion: Identity Confusion:

-a failure in identity formation, marked by lack of sense of a future adult path