psc final exam review

bipartisanship

a process of cooperation through compromise

critical election

an election that represents a sudden, clear, and long-term shift in voter allegiances

divided government

a condition in which one or more houses of the legislature is controlled by the party in opposition to the executive

first-past-the-post

a system in which the winner of an election is the candidate who wins the greatest number of votes cast, also known as plurality voting

gerrymandering

the manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate

majoritarian voting

a type of election in which the winning candidate must receive at least 50 percent of the votes, even if a run-off election is required

majority party

the legislative party with over half the seats in a legislative body, and thus significant power to control the agenda

minority party

the legislative party with less than half the seats in a legislative body

moderate

an individual who falls in the middle of the ideological spectrum

party identifiers

individuals who represent themselves in public as being part of a party

party organization

the formal structure of the political party and the active members responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates

party platform

the collection of a party’s positions on issues it considers politically important

party polarizaiton

the shift of party positions from moderate towards ideological extremes

party realignment

a shifting of party alliances within the electorate

party-in-government

party identifiers who have been elected to office and are responsible for fulfilling the party’s promises

party-in-the-electorate

members of the voting public who consider themselves part of a political party or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other

personal politics

a political style that focuses on building direct relationships with voters rather than on promoting specific issues

plurality voting

the election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share

political machine

an organization that secures votes for a party’s candidates or supports the party in other ways, usually in exchange for political favors such as a job in government

political parties

organizations made up of groups of people with similar interests that try to directly influence public policy through their members who seek and hold public office

precinct

the lowest level of party organization, usually organized around neighborhoods

proportional representation

a party-based election rule in which the number of seats a party receives is a function of the share of votes it receives in an election

reapportionment

the reallocation of House seats between the states to account for population changes

redistricting

the redrawing of electoral maps

safe seat

a district drawn so members of a party can be assured of winning by a comfortable margin

sorting

the process in which voters change party allegiances in response to shifts in party position

third parties

political parties formed as an alternative to the Republican and Democratic parties, also known as minor parties

two-party system

a system in which two major parties win all or almost all elections

association

groups of companies or institutions that organize around a common set of concerns, often within a given industry or trade

astroturf movement

a political movement that resembles a grassroots movement but is often supported or facilitated by wealthy interests and/or elites

citizens united

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was a 2010 Supreme Court case that granted corporations and unions the right to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections

collective good

a good such as public safety or clean air, often produced by government, that is generally available to the population as a whole

contract lobbyist

a lobbyist who works for a contract lobbying firm that represents clients before government

disturbance theory

the theory that an external event can lead to interest group mobilization

efficacy

the belief that you make a difference and that government cares about you and your views

elite critique

the proposition that wealthy and elite interests are advantaged over those without resources

fragmentation

the result when a large interest group develops diverging needs

free rider problem

the situation that occurs when some individuals receive benefits (get a free ride) without helping to bear the cost

grassroots movement

a political movement that often begins from the bottom up, inspired by average citizens concerned about a given issue

in-house lobbyist

an employee or executive within an organization who works as a lobbyist on behalf of the organization

inside lobbying

the act of contacting and taking the organization’s message directly to lawmakers in an attempt to influence polic

iron triangle

three-way relationship among congressional committees, interests groups, and the bureaucracy

issue network

a group of interest groups and people who work together to support a particular issue or policy

legislative liaison

a person employed by a governmental entity such as a local government, executive department, or university to represent the organization before the legislature

lobbyist

a person who represents an organization before government in an attempt to influence policy

material incentives

substantive monetary or physical benefits given to group members to help overcome collective action problems

membership organizations

an interest group that usually consists of dues-paying members who organize around a particular cause or issue

neopluralist

a person who suggests that all groups’ access and influence depend on the political environment

outside lobbying

the act of lobbying indirectly by taking the organization’s message to the public, often through the use of the media and/or by issue press releases, in hopes that the public will then put pressure on lawmakers

particularized benefit

a benefit that generally accrues to a narrow segment of society

pluralist

a person who believes many groups healthily compete for access to decision-makers

public interest group

an interest group that seeks a public good, which is something that accrues to all

purposive incentives

benefits to overcome collective action problems that appeal to people’s support of the issue or cause

revolving door laws

laws that require a cooling-off period before government officials can register to lobby after leaving office

soft money

money that interests can spend on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law

solidary incentives

benefits based on the concept that people like to associate with those who are similar to them

voting cues

sources—including fellow lawmakers, constituents, and interest groups—that lawmakers often use to help them decide how to vote, especially on unfamiliar issues

agenda setting

the media’s ability to choose which issues or topics get attention

beat

the coverage area assigned to journalists for news or stories

citizen journalism

video and print news posted to the Internet or social media by citizens rather than the news media

cultivation theory

the idea that media affect a citizen’s worldview through the information presented

digital paywall

the need for a paid subscription to access published online material

equal-time rule

an FCC policy that all candidates running for office must be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities

fairness doctrine

a 1949 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy, now defunct, that required holders of broadcast licenses to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner

framing

the process of giving a news story a specific context or background

freedom of information act (FOIA)

a federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens

hypodermic theory

the idea that information is placed in a citizen’s brain and accepted

indecency regulations

laws that limit indecent and obscene material on public airwaves

libel

printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization

mass media

the collection of all media forms that communicate information to the general public

minimal effects theory

the idea that the media have little effect on citizens

muckraking

news coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices

party press era

period during the 1780s in which newspaper content was biased by political partisanship

priming

the process of predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way

prior restraint

a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding someone to publish a book they plan to release)

public relations

biased communication intended to improve the image of people, companies, or organizations

reporter’s privilege

the right of a journalist to keep a source confidential

slander

spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization

soft news

news presented in an entertaining style

sunshine laws

laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public

yellow journalism

sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories

apportionment

the process by which seats in the House of Representatives are distributed among the fifty states

bicameralism

the political process that results from dividing a legislature into two separate assemblies

bill

proposed legislation under consideration by a legislature

cloture

a parliamentary process to end a debate in the Senate, as a measure against the filibuster; invoked when three-fifths of senators vote for the motion

collective representation

the relationship between Congress and the United States as a whole, and whether the institution itself represents the American people

conference commitee

a special type of joint committee that reconciles different bills passed in the House and Senate so a single bill results

constituency

the body of voters, or constituents, represented by a particular politician

delegate model of representation

a model of representation in which representatives feel compelled to act on the specific stated wishes of their constituents

descriptive representation

the extent to which a body of representatives represents the descriptive characteristics of their constituencies, such as class, race, ethnicity, and gender

enumerated powers

the powers given explicitly to the federal government by the Constitution to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, raise and support armies, declare war, coin money, and conduct foreign affairs

filibuster

a parliamentary maneuver used in the Senate to extend debate on a piece of legislation as long as possible, typically with the intended purpose of obstructing or killing it

implied powers

the powers not specifically detailed in the U.S. Constitution but inferred as necessary to achieve the objectives of the national government

inherent powers

the powers neither enumerated nor implied but assumed to exist as a direct result of the country’s existence

joint committee

a legislative committee consisting of members from both chambers that investigates certain topics but lacks bill referral authority

majority leader

the leader of the majority party in either the House or Senate; in the House, the majority leader serves under the Speaker of the House, in the Senate, the majority leader is the functional leader and chief spokesperson for the majority party

markup

the amending and voting process in a congressional committee

minority leader

the party member who directs the activities of the minority party on the floor of either the House or the Senate

oversight

the right to review and monitor other bodies such as the executive branch

politico model of representation

a model of representation in which members of Congress act as either trustee or delegate, based on rational political calculations about who is best served, the constituency or the nation