Ruminants

Basic Bovine Anatomy

Procedure of clinical exam of bovine

1. Biosecurity - x3 copies from the client, the new owner and the truck drive

   • education via Animal Health Australia or Emergency Animal Disease

   • DPI Biosecurity manual

2. Presenting Problem

3. Signalment

   • species, breed, age, sex

4. History (hard on a farm)

   • immediate, past, herd

5. Observe environment - farm and surrounding areas

6. Observe animal at distance

   • mentation, posture, gait, gross visual abnormalities

   • BCS = 1-5

   • Conformation = flat vs curved back

   • respiratory rate

7. Detailed observation of animal with restraint

8. Physical clinical exam of animal ± restraint

   • tail → head , left → right

   • tests = temp, pulse (tail), HR and MM + CRT (vulva)

   • body = contour of abdomen and BCS symmetry

   • Left side = thorax and abdomen + rumen

   • Right side = thorax and abdomen + intestines

   • Front = head, nasal discharge, neck

   • Internal = rectal exam or PD, kidneys, GIT

9. Diagnostics = lab, US, radiography, CT

   • cost vs benefit analysis

   • time vs benefit analysis

   • body systems + types of lesions

Key components of rear clinical exam of bovine

• Urine collection

  • Females = stroke below the vulva to stimulate

  • Bulls = stimulate prepuce or hose with water

  • mid stream sample

  • identify colour, clarity and content

  • can use strips to analyse pH, ketons, cells and protein

• Mucous Membranes

  • Colour - pink and moist

  • Abnormal = discharge, colour change, odour

• Contour of Abdomen Symmetry

  • Normal = symmetrical

  • Left flank (top left) filled = full

  • Left side = gas filled rumen

  • Bloated at base = hydrops / obstetrics

  • Bloated all the way around = intestine issue

Key Parameters of Bovine

Temperature = collect from anus internal wall

• 38.5 - 39.5 degrees

• below 37 is dying

• above 40 is high, but be cautious of environment → will alter respiratory rate

Pulse Rate = collect from tail

• Beef = 60-80 beats per min

• Dairy = 50 beats per min

Respiration

• 20-30 breaths per min

Rumen Contractions

• 1-2 per minute

Left vs Right Side of Thorax/Abdomen Exam of Bovine

Left Side

• Rumen

  • normal = contract 1-2 per minute

  • feel in the paralumbar fossa (triangle dorsal sac of rumen)

  • measure intensity, duration and frequency of primary (food) and secondary (gas movement) cycle contraction

  • can be palpated / ballot rumen (sick = won’t feel)

  • can percuss and auscultate reticulum

    • gas filled viscera (LDA/RDA) → PING or basketball on concrete

    • gas filled rumen → PUNG

    • rumen atony and collapse

    • ruminal distension

    • pneumoperitoneum

  • more fibrous = sound scratchy

  • gas gap (top third), rumen, fibrous mat (doughy/water bed), fluid (bottom)

Right Side

• Caecum

• Intestines

• possible displaced abomasum

Left + Right

• Lymph nodes (pre-femoral and pre-scapular or submandibula)

• Thorax → quiet is normal

• Respiratory organs (rate and crackles/wheeze) → stethoscope

  • x2 ribs from the back, then down to elbow

  • if extended neck = lung issue

• Cardiac system (rate, rhythm, murmurs) → stethoscope + palpate

• Foot conformation

Parameters + key examination for sheep/goats

• Teeth = total divide 2 is roughly age (remember milk teeth)

• BCS

• Heart Rate / Pulse = femoral artery or heart auscultation → 70-80 bpm

• Respiratory Rate = distance → 12-20 bpm

• Lymph Nodes = submandibular

• MM + CRT = FAMACHA score of 1 or 2 is normal (/5)→ pink and moist

• Temperature = 38.5-40 degrees

• Rumen contractions = 2 per minute

• Fleece + skin

• Feet and musculoskeletal

  • foot rot and lameness is very common

• Thorax + Abdomen = loud is normal in sheep

• Reproductive

• Preventative health

• Recent husbandry

Footrot vs Heel Abscess vs Toe Abscess

Footrot	Heel Abscess	Toe Abscess
multiple feet no swelling no pus heat smelly flies spreads rapidly no break in coronet skin separated hoof from sole	x1 hind foot swelling white pus hot slight smell no flies heavy animals abscess usually discharges at coronet or between toes	x1 front food no swelling pus if trimmed hot smelly flies all sheep effected abscess form under horn, discharging from coronary band

Cheesy Gland

• Cheesy Gland = casous lymphadenitis or Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis

• abscesses in lymph nodes around body

• effects sheep

• wide spread post shearing

• dipping post shearing increases risk (open wounds)

• large loss to meat industry (doen’t really effect wool)

Safe Cattle Handling

• People → Animals → Equipment

• Use point of balance to move cattle in a low stress stock handling

• Cows have 320 degrees of vision

  • point of balance is at 90 from front

  • blind spot directly behind

  • move the front animal first and the others will follow

  • as handler moves forward, past each post of balance they will all move

Anaesthetic and Analgesia for disbudding, dehorning and castration of cattle + sheep

• improve welfare and quicker recover

• not legally required in young calves

• Meloxicam = injectable, easy, expensive

• Bucccalgesia = oral, hard (takes 10-15 mins to work = catch sheep x2)

• TriSolfen = spray on after procedure, easy and cheap

  • local anaesthetic and antiseptic

  • best oncalves 6-8 weeks

Explain disbudding vs dehorning in both calves and kids

Disbudding	Dehorning
remove all horn producing cells ideal - buds not attach cut, burn then scrape off horn	removal of horn and horn produce tissue horn still attached to skull sinus exposed → 2nd infection?

• improves safety for humans and animals (also their welfare)

• improve meat quality and reduce bruising

• do not give food 3 hours before procedure

• must be in good health prior to surgery

• ideally castrate males at the time time

Calves

• very common - less than 2 months

• polled gene is breeding against horn / reduce growth and need to dehorn

• anaesthesia + pain relief (xylazine + lignocaine to cornual nerve)

• NSAID = meloxicam

• tools

  • disbudding knife (under 2 months)

  • scoop dehorners (2-6 months)

  • cup dehorners (2-6 months)

  • horn saw (6+ months)

  • gullotine or tippers (6+ months)

  • foetotomy wire = last option

• keep calves sternal post procedure

Kids

• very common - 1-2 weeks old

• local anaesthesia and sedation (xylazine) + cornual nerve block

• NSAID = meloxicam

• tools = surgical, cyrosurgery or heat cautery (heat → risk brain necrosis)

Explain castration

• prevent undesired bull calves from breeding - breeding control or improving genetics

• behaviour control = easier to handle, less injuries, less property damage

• meat quality = more tender, lower glucose and more connective tissue

• under 6 months = legal to do with or without GA

• over 6 months = illegal to castrate

Surgical	Non-Surgical
Scalpel + emasculator younger than 6 months most effective risk of infection + injury + blood loss scalpel blades = cheap emasculators = nut to nut experienced operator = strip fascia either strum, twist or ligate vessels, use emasculators then leave scrotum open to drain Henderson tool pinch + spin	Elastrator Rings under 2 weeks old (low stress) bloodless + no open wound painful high tetanus risk cheap Burdizzo (not common) up to 6 months old bloodless but need good technique and hard to confirm if successful

Clostridial Diseases

• Pulpy Kidney (enterotxaemia)

  • sudden change in young lambs feeding on fresh pasture or grain

  • usually young, fast growing animals

  • bacteria and toxic

  • sudden death

• Tetanus

  • poor hygiene from from castration or banding

  • wounds from penetrating things, foot trimming, dog bites, dehorning

  • stiff leg gait → convulsions → sore horse

  • treat with antitoxin ($$ low survival change) or prevent

• Black leg

  • gas under skin → crackles → muscle bruising

  • common in young calves, uncommon in sheep

  • very depressed, abdominal pain → sudden death

• Black disease

  • liver fluke infection → liver damage = bacteria + toxin

  • common in rams

  • very depressed, abdominal pain → sudden death

• Malignant Oedema

  • contaminated wounds post shearing, mulesing, castration

  • lambing

  • local swelling + depressed with fever → death

Leptospirosis

• zoonotic disease

• spirochaete is infected in urine and abortion material

  • enter via skin abrasion / mucosa → lymphatics → liver → bacteria

• sheds and contaminates environment for long time

• antibodies can clear the pathogen

• in utero → cause abortion, still birth or premature/weak calves

Signs

• abortion

• fever

• kidney and liver damage

• decreased milk production

• acute or systemic disease

Treatment

• often too late

• Antibiotics = Oxytetracycline or amoxycillin + fluids or transfusion

• Vaccination = ideal prevention

• Control environmental disks - zoonotic!

Botulism

• due to phosphorus deficiency

  • pica (eat things that aren’t usually food) → will chew on bones to try and help (also bad)

• contaminated or spoiled feed

• due to eating animal carcasses, rotting animal material or poor silage

Signs

• low growth rate + poor reproduction

• hindlimb weakness → paralysis

• down but alert so unable to rise = death

Prevent = annual or every 3 year vaccine

Pink Eye

• kerato conjunctivitis

• effects 80% of herd, in one or two eyes = blindness

• pink or cloudy eye

Treatment

• sew eyelid shut for a week to allow for healing

• prevent with vaccination 3-6 weeks prior to pink eye season

• control flies - insecticidal ear tags, remove rotting food, limit dust

Tick Fever

• Vector = Bebesia Bovis, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale + Theileria

  • egg on grass → larvae + nymph → adults create eggs leave in faeces

  • one host tick (Bush Tick)

• all over Southern Aus coastline

• 5% mortality but very high morbidity

• reduced BCS, growth rate, milk production, fertility

• cannot be sold or exported = withholding periods post all treatment

B. bovis	B. bigemina	Anaplasmosis
overstimulated immune low peripheral circulation hypotensive shock haemolytic anaemia haemoglobinuria (red water) high fever (41+)	intravascula haemolysis haemolytic anaemia haemoglobinuria (red water) splenic congestion + necrosis	blood sucking tick → anaemia spleen damage NO haemoglobinuria or haemoglobinaemia
neurological signs inappetence depressed + weak anaemia + jaundice	no neurological signs less severe than B. bovis	depressed + weak anaemia + jaundice

Treatment Babesiois = Imidocarb, NSAIDS to reduce fever, supportive care ± transfusion

Treatment Anaplasmosis = Tetracyline or Imidocarb

Prevention for all = single vaccination

Bovine Ephemeral Fever (BEF)

• 3 day sickness

• transmitted by mosquitoes and biting midges

• effects bulls, pregnant/lactating cows, well conditioned cattle, during wet season

Signs

• high fever → will stand in the dam to cool off

• lameness and recumbency → death

• muscle twitching

• drop in milk production

• abortion

Prevention = vaccination 2-4 weeks apart before Spring

Treatment = NSAIDS (meloxicam) and calcium

Restrain in ruminants

• Physical restraint

• Chemical restraint

  • Xylazine (most common in bovine, avoid in sheep)

  • Diazepam (in sheep for short periods)

Blood collection and fluid nursing

• Jugular = large volume

• Coccygeal (tail) = small volume

• Arterial vein = blood gas

• Subcutaneous abdominal (milk vein) = rate

• Red top = most common → clotting factor = 2, 4, 10ml

• Purple top = EDTA = 2, 4, 10ml

• Green top = Lith hep = 4ml

Cattle: IV Hypertonic Saline at 4ml/kg → immediately after give oral fluids via frick speculum, pump, tubing or buckets of medications

Small Ruminants: IV fluids via cephalic vein of 0.9% NaCl

• Hydration and Azotaemia= 2ml/kg/hr

• Hyokalaemia is common = max 10-40 mEg

• Neonate maintenance = 4mll/kg/hr

• Hypoglycaemia common in neonates = max 50% dextrose

Downer Cow

Main Causes:

• Mastitis → open teats + dirty enviro causing infection

• Metritis → post birth infected uterus

• Major Sepsis → secondary metritis

• Metabolic

• Musculoskeletal or neurological → lame, infection, dislocated hip

Nursing Care

• improve environment = warmth, shelter, soft bedding

• posture = sternal recumbency (prevent bloating), lift daily and move

• fresh water daily

• hand strip milk from udder

Surgery in the field

• clippers, surgical prep solutions in buckets

• surgical instruments, suture material, flush

• post surgical antibiotics and topical treatments

• aseptic as possible = clip, water scrub with nail brush, surgical prep

• Sedation = lignocaine (ideal) or xylazine (low dose/avoid for standing procedures)

• Blocks = L block (flank, paravertebral , epidural, cornual nerve block, ring block)

Urinary Blockage

• Obstructions is urethral process, distal sigmoid flexure or bladder

  • most common in early castrated male goats

• Stone types

  • Phosphatic stones = sandy (due to high grain and pellets diet)

  • Calcium carbonate = hard (due to high alfalfa and legume diet)

• Symptoms = straining, vocalising, sawhorse/wide stance, anuria, anorexia, lethargy, recumbency

• Treatment

  • blood test - check biochemistry, balance electrolytes

  • anti-inflammatory, analgesics and fluids

  • urinary acidification + diet change for x2 weeks (dissolve stones

  • prone to recurrence → surgery

    • urethral amputation = cheap surgery in field

    • cystotomy = expensive hospital procedure to drain + stitch

• Prevention = prevent infection by castrated at 3 months old

Causes, signs and treatment for an anaemic small ruminant

Causes:

• Blood loss = trauma, endoparasites, ectoparasites

• Haemolysis = leptospirosis (zoonotic), clostridial infections, chronic copper toxicosis

• Decreased Erythrocytes = Johne’s disease (notifiable), Lymphoma, Neoplasia

Clinical Signs:

• pale MM → low FAMACHA score and PCV

• weakness, lethargy

• tachycardia and tachypnoea

Treatment:

• Whole RBCs = cheap, easy, replaces all components, good for haemorrhaging

• Fresh Frozen Plasma = expensive, great for failure passive transfer, hypoproteinaemia, oncotic support, great in food producing animals

• Packed RBC = normovolaemic anaemic patient, avoid in food producing animals

• Serum = limited research

Blood collection and transfusion for small ruminants

Collection from the donor:

• minimise risk of reaction

• minimise risk of transmissible disease

• decrease stress (bring a friend)

• can donate 20% circulating blood volume = 10-15ml/kg of body weight = 450ml

• lignocaine → prime T port and tape in place → take sample → heparinized flush

Administration:

• first transfusion is low risk, but ideal to blood type before - go slow

• acute haemorrhagic shock = replace 50% of the estimated loss

• chronic = (desired PCV% - recipient PCV%)/ donor PCV% x recipient weight x 0.08

• delivery

  • Initial = 1ml/kg/hr

  • Monitor vitals every 5 mins

  • Increase to 10-20 ml/kg/hr after 20 mins if no adverse reactions

SE (rare) tachycardia tachypnoea pyrexia (temperature) piloerection muscle fasciculations

Treatment for SE stop transfusion epinephrine 0.03 mg/kg/IV warmth nutrition and water PCV and TP 24hrs after Recheck 7 days post iron injection + endoparasite protection

Reproduction industry and expectations

• 1 calf per cow per year = goal for beef and dairy

• repro performance of dairy cow have been increasing since 2000

• reproduction inefficiency is that main reason cows are culled

  • ideally balance each cows milk production and reproduction to be equally efficient, successful and profitable

• Calving → 1st insemination <70 days → conception = >50-60%

• Good heifers will calve by 24 months

• Lactation = 305 days

• Dry Period = 60 days

• Abortions are very rare, only <3%

Explain the reproduction/oestrus cycle of bovine

• Calving interval = 365 days (x1 calf per cow per year)

• Gestation = 285 days or 9 months

• Uterine involution (shrinking) = 35-40 days

• Ovarian cycle = up to 60 days

  • development of postpartum disease (dystocia, retained placenta, urinary infection, metabolic disorders) will delay uterine involution and ovarian cyclicity

  • negative energy balance impacts post partum uterine involution = high milk production despite low feed intake

Oestrus Cycle = 21 days:

• Day 1-3 = Met-oestrus

  • FSH → start follicular wave then subsides

• Day 3-14 = Dioestrus (progesterone at highest)

  • Dominant follicle is LH dependant

  • CL produces progesterone

  • PGF (prostaglandin) breaks down CL = called luteolysis as it prepares for next follicular wave

• Day 14-16 = Proestrus

  • increasing in oestrogen to prepare for ovulation

• Day 16-18 = Oestrus

  • peak in oestrogen

  • peak in LH

• Day 18-20 = Met-oestrus

Explain the hypothalamus pituitary gonadal axis

• Hypothalamus → GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) to the anterior pituitary

• Anterior pituitary releases FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinising hormone) = effects ovary

  • follicles continually develop in the ovary which secrete small amounts of oestrogen and inhibin → negative feedback loop on FSH (self regulates)

• If a dominant follicle grows → lots of oestrogen = positive feedback loop on Hypothalamus to release lots of GnRH → lots of LH = ovulation

• Ovulation produces a CL (corpus luteum)

• CL produces progesterone (maintenance hormone for pregnancy → negative feedback loop on hypothalamus to inhibit GnRH production

  • Therefore: can use prostaglandin (PGF) to cause death in corpus luteum (leutolysis) and hence bring cow back into cycle for next pregnancy

How can you detect oestrus?

Behaviour

• cow have wide stand waiting to be mounted

• occurs 3 time per day - morning, lunch, night each for 20-30 minutes

• AI usually follows traditional timings to

Mount Detectors: small heat patch stuck to cow and will change colour if increase in heat → will occur from mounting other cows

Activity Monitors: pedometer (steps) or a collar (measure rumination → ready to mount)

Ultrasonography:

• foetal viability, age, number and gender

• early as 28-30 days of gestation

Rectal palpation:

• used in dairy and beef cows (not small ruminants)

• do during 35-45 days of gestation

• traditional method = cheap

Explain oestrus synchronisation vs Timed AI and the advantages/disadvantages

Oestrus Synchronisation: CIDR device used to release hormones into cattle

• inseminate during the 2-5 days of oestrus detection (after PGF hormone)

• can be used to mimic the luteal phase

Advantages	Disadvantages
improved required oestrus detection efficiency batch breeding and calving can improve labour efficiency and management of calves improve milk and calf target market requirements (increase profit)	if failed = expensive mistake batch breeding and calving requires short period of very high labour so must plan adequate facilities and staff availability need more herd bulls

Timed AI: can be done at the same time as AI to be during the 24-32 hours of ovulation

Doing both Ovisynch and Timed AI

• excellent farm management - repro, nutrition and herd health

• animal identification → inject right cow at right time

• good recording keeping to time hormonal administrations and AI

Advantages	Disadvantages
no oestrus detection needed higher insemination rate good conception rate	more hormones required increased handling and labour expensive

Natural service vs AI, and the advantage/disadvantages

	Advantages	Disadvantages
Natural Service (mostly bulls)	bulls can detect oestrus of females well can work 24/7	poor records of who mated with who prone to veneral disease varied libido expensive to maintain slow improvement to gene pool injuries
Artificial Insemination (AI)	genetic improvement low risk/ can eradicate venereal disease transmission no special requirements to house bulls increased safety	need to detect oestrus or use timed-AI protocols AI requires skill inbreeding = x1 bulls semen to impregnate many cows decreases genetic variation

Veneral Diseases (Tritichomonas foetus)

• extracellular protozoan parasite found in bovine breeder cows which cause:

  • abnormal pregnancy diagnosis results

  • prolonged calving intervals in females = only clinical signs

• disease is asymptomatic

• disease has not vaccine in Australia

  • often occurs in very dry and dusty environments

• collect semen sample using a Tricamper or a “Pizzle Stick”

• can detect parasite in a direct culture or smear

• PCR can be used

• Bovine Venereal Campylobacteriosis (Vibriosis) can be given to help control veneral bacterium

Bull Breeding Soundness Exam (BBSE)

BBSE = quick and cheap screening test of bulls (NOT a fertility test) that assesses the risk of reproductive failure

• serving capacity / ability test

  • not common

  • assess libido, mounting behaviour and ability to serve within 20 minutes (0-1 = low, 2-3 = medium, 4 = high)

• general physical and clinical exam

  • BCS, leg/foot confirmation, gait, head, eyes, dentition

• scrotal circumference and reproductive tract (external and internal)

  • scrotal tape = measures puberty cycle

  • heritable - minimal requirements depending on breed

• collect semen and evaluate motility

  • transrectal massage

  • artificial vagina

  • electroejaculation

  • evaluate volume, colour, motility, live vs dead, morphology

• Result of BSSE

  • Tick (ACV standard approved)

  • Cross (not ACV standard approved)

  • Q (qualitified but not completely ACV standard)

  • NT (not evaluated or meet ACV standard)

Fertile = will impregnate 60% after 3 weeks, and 90% after 9 weeks of health females

Sub-fertile = impregnate females by natural service, but not at the rate of fertile males

Infertile = unable to impregnate females

In-vivo vs In-vitro embryo reproduction

	In-Vivo super-stimulation superovulation AI fertilisation uterine flushing	In-Vitro super-stimulation transvaginal oocyte aspiration IV maturation, fertilisation + culture transfer to recipient cow
Pro's	multiple ovulations ideally all fertilised collect embryos post fertilisation	greater number of offspring from a valuable cow in a shorter interval reduce generation interval embryo sexing transport frozen embryos

Reasons for failures =

• poor nutrition

• heat stress

• reproductive disease

• poor breeding soundness

• poor reproductive management

• genetic congenital abnormalities

Important Hormones in Bovine Parturition

Prostaglandin (PGF2a) → Endometrium

• luteolysis = break down corpus luteum

• soften cervix

• make myometrium sensible

• initiate oxytocin release

Oestrogen → Development of mammary gland

• oxytocin receptor increases

• release cervical seal

• soften cervix

• increase secretion of mucous for smooth delivery

Relaxin → Ovary

• increase elasticity in pelvis ligaments (rump will drop)

• soft the cervix

• stimulate mammary gland

• decrease tonus in uterus

Oxytocin → posterior pituitary

• maximum pressure

• myometrial contractions

• stimulate mammy gland

• can also be used post calving to contract uterus

3 Stages of Bovine Parturition

Stage 1 = 6-12 hours

• uterine contractions begin

• cervical dilation

• will be restless and separate from the herd = increase HR

• foetus will be getting into position so cow is very pressure sensitive

• water bag / amniotic sac expelled = clear/yellow

Stage 2 = <2 hours

• uterine contractions increase

• foetus enters birth canal = head + thorax ideal to prevent mum getting hip lock

• calf delivery = heifers will take longer than cows

• check for tares and spares

Stage 3 = 2-8 hours

• afterbirth / placenta delivered → always allow it to come out naturally so you don’t break it → systemic infection

  • retained foetal membrane (24hrs +) is very smelly

• contractions and epithelium weaken

• calve suckling → oxytocin release for mum

• all in all out systems, good nutrition + hygiene, vaccinations = herd health

Methods to assist birthing

• crush with a kick gate OR ropes to cast animal/ and tie to a tree or to get to ground

• lubricant and gloves

  • always need to have head engaged

  • eponychium = hoof capsule slippers to protect uterus and canal

• disinfectant (iodine or chlorhex) in a bucket to soak after

  • chains on foetus above and below fetlock

  • calving jack, pulleys or ropes

  • head snare (lasso to put around head/into mouth) or eye hooks

• epidural anaesthesia = 1ml/100kg of lignocaine (1hr

• ensure correct position and pulling → push back in and readjust position

  • rotate the calves hips 90 to get through cow pelvis

  • pull calf one leg at a time to reduce width of shoulders

    • anterior = head + front hooves down = 96%

    • posterior = hind hooves up = 4%

• always check presentation = tongue , eye, hoof or rectum reflex

  • only caesarean if head is not engaging with legs or after 15-20 mins no progress

• if calf is dead, can cut it up inside and pull out in pieces

Ewes and Dose

• 30mins to 2 hours

• use ropes not chains

• usually twins so need to birth individually

• always check for tears and spares

Types of dystocia / incorrect birthing positions

• Head down = front hooves first but head is down

• Head to side = front hooves first but head to side (easy to decapitate)

Bilateral Flexion

• Breech = hip and hock flexion (ball with back end facing out)

  • bring hind legs up but keep hand over hooves to protect uterus

  • push hind legs forward then bend stifle and hock

• Carpal or shoulder flexion = head first but front legs flexed

  • put hand down and bend legs up, keep hands over hooves to protect uterus

Unilateral Flexion

• push back in and reach for second leg

• ensure head is still engaged

Twins = focus on what anatomy can be felt and the way legs are bending

• Front leg fetlock + knee bend in same direction

• Back leg fetlock and hock bend in opposite directions

Complications in Birthing

Uterine prolapse

• 20 mins post calving → if not fixed can pull bladder out = infection

• the longer the uterus is out, the more blood it fills with = harder to get in

  • use hip lifters or put them in frog leg to push rumen forward/ allow space

  • may require an arm extender (wine bottle) to push back in

• use saline or iodine to wash + biohazard bag to lift up uterus, use gravity

• can put sugar on uterus to withdraw moisture + size

• epidural

• can give oxytocin to induce contractions + pull back in

• may need antibiotics and/or NSAIDS

• usually associated with hypocalcaemia and difficult calving

• always give 4 in 1 vaccine post

Vaginal Prolapse

• must cull cow after birth as not viable to birth again

• epidural → clean and debride → lubricate and replace → Buhner suture

Buhner Suture → subcut tie ventral to vulva used to hold uterus in post prolapse

Foetus Fractures → if too much forced used or difficult calving

Haemorrhage → torn artery during birth, good prognosis

Pelvic Fat Rupture → only if high BCS, clean and check

Calving Paralysis → assist lifting and standing / physio post birth so not recumbent

Calf parameters + resuscitation

Heart Rate

• Normal = 100-200 bpm

• If <80 bpm = stress, hypoxia, acidosis

• if <50 bpm = adrenaline, intubate and ventilate

Respiratory Rate

• Normal = 20-40 per minute/ <30 seconds, active and spontaneous

• if irregular or <10 bpm = doxapram

• if not spontaneous = intubate and dexamethasone

Position

• Normal = sternal recumbency by 5-10 mins, responds to stimulation

• if unable to remain sternal within 10mins = CNC hypoxia or oedema

Resuscitation

• vigorous stimulation of body with a towel

• nasopharyngeal stimulation

• suction nasal passage and oropharynx

• intubate with a 6-8mm ET tube

• Oxygen

Colostrum/ Colostrum Banking and Failure of Passive Transfer

Colostrum = first milk post calving, contains immunoglobins, total solids, very high in vitamins (A, D, E), high in iron, Calcium , Phosphorus, Magnesium

• within 24 hrs = 10% of bodyweight in colostrum in first 6 hours of life, over x2 doses

• there is no placental transfer of Ig during gestation → must all be after

  • no proteolytic enzymes = prevent clotting

  • high pH in small intestine

• Quality measured using

  • Brix refractometer = >30%

  • Specific Gravity = 1.050 +

  • Colostrum metre = IgG conc >80g/L

  • Bacterial contamination = TPP <100,000 and TCC <10,000

• Risk factors of low quality/failure

  • mum is too quick to return to milking

  • leaking of Ig prior to parturition

  • breed dependant

  • systemic illness

  • adverse weather

Failure of Passive Transfer (FPT)

• serum of IgG is below 10 mg/ml (need 3-5 L total)

• very common

• directly measure = radial immunodiffusion or ELISA

• indirect measure

  • total serum tolids / tootal protein = sample 8-12 calves, 1-7 days old

  • GGT ($$) = high levels of colostrum for parallel transfer, up to 10 days old

Colostrum Banking

• wash and dry udder

• feed to calf instantly or refrigerate

• Short term = fridge IgG for 2 days or if adding potassium up to 7 days

• Long term = freeze for 6-12 months, defrosted in warm water bath at 49 degrees

Calf Digestion Tract + Feeding

0-3 weeks = Born monogastric

• abomasum is 70-80% of the volume (1.5 L)

• unable to digest cellulose

3 weeks - weaning = Transition

• rumen pH rises slowly → pH = 6 by 10 weeks

• protozoal collonisation + microbial fermentation of cellulose

Ruminant Phase

• rumen expands to 25-30 L by 12 weeks

• energy utilisation from rumination increases efficiency

• cow will feed x2 per day

• lamb will feed x6 per day

Neonatal Diarrhoea + Estimating dehydration

• neonatal calf = <1 month

• multifactorial and multi pathogen diarrhoea

  • Nutritional deficiency = lack of osmosis

  • Hypersecretory = E coli, salmonella, coccidia

  • Malabsorptive = damage to enterocytes viral + protozoal + inflam

  • Lack of clostridium

  • Coronavirus

• always assume

  • hyponatremia (low sodium), hypoglycaemia (low glucose)

  • hyperkalaemia (high K)

  • potentially hypochloraemia (low chloride)

• most common cause of pre-weaning mortality and morbidity = big economic loss

• protect disease spread and ensure adequate nutrition with calf hutches

• may need antibiotics = amoxicillin, ampicillin, TMS, ceftiofur, oxytetracycline

Estimating Dehydration

	Normal/Mild	Moderate	Severe
Hydration	0-4%	5-8%	9+
Demeanour	Normal, standing	Depressed, dopey, weak	Depressed, comatose, flat, no response
MM	Pink, moist	Pale, tacky	Pale, dry, cold
Eye Recession	None, bright	2-4mm, slight	4+ mm, significant
Skin Tent	1-4 seconds	3-5 seconds	6+ seconds
Urine pH	>6.5	6-6.4	<6.0
Suckle Reflex	Strong	Weak	None
Action	Oral Fluids	Oral, IV or Sub Cut	IV

Estimating Dehydration

• Maintenance = 100 ml/kg/day

• Ongoing losses of 1-4 L through scours will need replacement

  • replace half of deficit in 6 hours

  • replace balance over next 12-24 hours

• Estimating Base Deficit (loss through scours) = Negative Base x Weight (kg) x 0.5

	Pros	Cons
Oral replace Na + glucose mainly Eg: Vytrate or Bovelyte	cheap easy to administer good for up to dehydration 60-80% absorbed	slow to restore not used for hypersecretory diarrhoea
IV isotonic saline 9% Hypertonic = 7-8.4%	rapid to restore circulating volume correct metabolic acidosis with/without oral fluids	expensive may need hospitalisationI

Enzootic Calf Pneumonia = Lower Respiratory Disease

• age specific - only calves = 2-10 weeks old, up to 6 months

• can hear lungs crackling

• infection in bronchopneumonia due to viral, host immunity, enviro or pathogen

• high morbidity and viral mortality

• dairy calves get it more than beef

• more susceptible if housed indoors than outdoors (less fresh air)

Mastitis - what is it, pathogens, transmission and clinical signs

Udder = x4 quarters, x4 teats, risk of suspension (older → stretches → risk of infection)

Teat Defence = skin, canal, keratin plug when not milking, sphincter at end of teat

Udder Defence

• lactoferrin - binds bacteria cells to stop repro

• Immunoglobulins = in colostrum

• cellular response = somatic cell counts (SCC - low is good 150-200)

• inflammatory response

Types of Mastitis:

Contagious	Environment
inside udder or on teat spreads from cow to cow during milking	in and spreads in the enviro dry off = 60 days of the year between no calves and not milking calving = low immune and no milk
Staph. aureus Strep. agalectiae Mycoplasma bovis	Strep. uberis E. coli Pseudomonas

Clinical Signs

• Down cow

• abnormal milk = watery, clear, serum, bloody, flakes, clots

• abnormal udder

  • acute = sudden onset, systemic illness (fever, high HR/RR), low milk production, may be recumbent and dehydrated. Udder is red, swollen, hard, changed milk colour

  • subclinical = udder and milk is normal, increased SCC (must culture for diagnosis), decreased milk production and quality

Explain the Dry Period and how that leads to mastitis and hyperkeratosis

Dry Period

• Drying off = no milk production, teat canal changes, less frequent observation from farmers, changing immune system

• Dry period = low chance of mastitis

• Transition Period = protective factors are diluted, teat canal keratin plug breaks down causing leaking

• Involution = not milks due to high risk of mastitis

• Full Involuted = resistant to mastitis, high WBC and lactoferrin levels

Teat End Hyperkeratosis

• score teat end from 1-5

  • 1 = no ring, smooth, normal teat after lactation

  • 2 = slightly rough ring

  • 3 = rough ring

  • 4 = very rough ring

  • 5 = open lesions and scabs

• risk factors = pointy teats, older, high production, slow milkers, over milking, high vacuumed cups

Milking Machine = increases exposure to bacteria, but decreases resistance. May change anatomy of teat

Mastitis - risk factors and how to diagnose

Mastitis Risk Factors

• Age and parity (number of calves delivered, older = higher chance)

• stage of lactation

• udder and tear structure (older = stretched = higher chance)

• hygiene of milkers and pasture/stalls

• stockmanship and low stress environment

Rapid Mastitis Test (RMT or CMT)

1. 2-3 squirts of milk from each quarter into each of the paddles

2. observe gross changes in milk against blue

3. tilt paddle 45 degrees, pour off excess milk so equal in each

4. add equal parts of RMT (reagentto milk) and swirl/rock paddle to mix for 10-15 secs

5. while swirling watch for change

   • Negative = normal, so no change in milk

   • Positive = higher SCC, will form thicker slime or egg white consistency

Bacteria Culture

1. wearing gloves, brush away dirt from iodine and dip in diluted iodine for 30 secs

2. dry each teat with a paper towel

3. individually scrub each teat with 70-80% ethyl alcohol

4. collect a 3-5 ml sample aseptically

5. label, fridge and send to lab for culture

Mastitis - treatment, control and prevention

Treatment

• Lactating cow therapy

  • intramammary treatment = more common

  • parenteral treatment = beef > diary

• Dry cow therapy

  • prevents spread of infection

  • restore productivity

  • prevent mastitis and development of disease

  • reduce recurrence and carriers of disease

  • avoid long term udder damage

• Antibiotic therapy

  • rapid and high elimination of bacteria

  • low likelihood of recurrent infections

  • reduces extent of drop in milk production

  • fast return of normal SCC

Control + Prevent → Aim = reduce farm level SCC

• Obtain individual cow SCC → cull if persistently high or treat all

• Improve milking practice → gloves, detect early, disinfectant

• Minimise Enviro → clead udders pre milking, check regular, stand for 30mins post milking to allow teat to seal again, clean dry bedding

Ketosis - what is it, risk factors and prevention strategies

• increase in vascular ketone bones (acetoacetate, acetone, beta-hydroxy butyrate)

• disorder of the energy metabolism in will conditioned cows

• nearly all dairy cows have after calving

Clinical Signs

• drop in BCS

• decreased appetite

• drop in milk production

• odour of acetone in bread

• abnormal behaviour

Diagnosis

• Blood test to measure BHB

• Urine test to measure acetoacetate

Treatment

• restore energy metabolism

• oral propylene glycol - 250 ml x2 per day then 300ml once per day for 5 days

• rapid IV 50% dextrose solution

Hypocalcaemia - what is it, risk factors and treatment

• low blood calcium (normal blood calcium = 8.5-10 mg/dl)

• also known as parturient paresis

• most susceptible during 3-7th calf - either pre, during or post parturition

• due to bone resorption, kidney/gut absorption, issues with NS, muscles → seizure

Signs

• prolonged sternal recumbency / downer cow

• depressed

• lateral kind in neck and head turned to flank

• high HR

• weak or absent rumen contractions

• secondary bloat (increase in fluid but can’t burp)

• low temperature

Treatment

• 4 in 1 vaccine (includes calcium)

• increase BCS (will have lost weight whilst down + calving paralysis)

• IV or Oral calcium boroguconate + supplements of P, Mg and glucose

• assist cow to stand

• list to lungs

Prevention

• DCAD diets

  • high in anionic salts (CaCl2 and MgSO4)

  • lower sodium and potassium in the diet

  • assist with mild metabolic acidosis

  • PTH receptors become more sensitive + active so they don’t resorb

    • Bone = breakdown and release Ca

    • Kidneys = increase C reabsoption

    • Intestines = increase Vitamin D and increase absorption of Ca

• calcium binders in diet

  • bind dietary Ca in gut so cow cannot easily absorb C

  • triggers cows natural calcium regulatory mechanisms

Hypomagnesaemia + Hypokalaemia

• most common during transition period = herd is stressed, need increased nutrients, low immunity, 3 weeks pre/post partition

Hypomagneseamia

• low magnesium due to cell metabolism and enzymes

• common in lactating cows during winter and sprin

• if fast growing pasture, low roughage

• cold and wet weather

• Clinical signs

  • fat or thin cows

  • lactating cows held off feed or cows in oestrus

  • muscular spams or convolutions

  • imbalance of Ca and P

Hypokalaemia

• low potassium intake due to no forage

• may lead to LDA due to metabolic acidosis

• Clinical signs

  • unable to stand or lift head off ground + muscle weakness

  • depression

  • muscle fasciculations

• Diagnosis = need serum biochemical analysis

• Treatment = oral potassium and adequate dry matter intake

Lameness - risk factors and treatment

• painful + restrict normal behaviour

• expensive due to compromising milk yield, reproduction, involuntary culling

• Score hooves = locomotion, lameness and mobility

  • Sprecher Methods = measures locomotion (1-5) due to curved back

  • Lameness = scores 0-3

• Causes

  • Non-infectious = white line, sole/toe ulcer, haemorrhage, corkscrew claw

  • Infectious = digital or interdigital dermitite, heel erosion, foot rot

• Tools to test

  • hook knives, hoof tester, hoof trimmer, file

  • straps, pulleys or tilt crush to hold feet

  • antiseptic spray

• Treatment

  • Claw = therapeutic trimming, remove loos hoof horn, apply block, NSAIDS + antibiotics

  • Skin = antibiotic or footbaths

• Risk factors = age, milk yield, parity, heifers, weight, nutrition, environmental

• Prevention = routine trimming, genetics, attend to lame cows quickly, concrete

Emergency Triage

1. Immediate care

2. Imminently life-threatening cases

3. Potentially life-threatening

4. Potentially serious

5. Less urgent

Considerations

• general exam and vital signs

• brief pertinent history of presenting problem

• patients name, age, main concerns, any events leading till emergency

• nature of traumatic event, witnesses, any deterioration, timing or dose of toxin

• concurrent disease and medications

• in depth medical history is for later

Cattle emergency = bloat

Primary or frothy bloat = acute/fast increased tension in rumen above the fibromat so can’t expel the built up due to diet change, or new paddock (lush legumes, lucerne, white clover)

Secondary or free gas bloat = unable to eructate, flaccid rumen, obstruction, prolonged recumbency, due to prussic acid poisoning or rumen paralysis

Clinical Signs

• progressive distension of LEFT paralumbar fossa

• colic

• herd problem - all change paddock and eating clover/foaming agent

If Moderate = take cattle off feed, oral 250-500 mls of paraffin/vegetable oil/anti bloat OR if desperate 50mls of detergent in 1L water

If Marked = skin tent over paralumbar fossa, treat medically as may lead to aspiration

If Severe = respiratory distress, emergency surgery (stab left paralumbar fossa)

Management and Prevention

• slowly wean off pasture/silage/hay before changing to new one

• modify gut microbes and digestion

• use anti-bloat preparation (monensin) in winter to prefer for high foliage in summer

• Bos indicus less risk

Cattle emergency = acidosis

Clinical Signs

• acute disease onset

• rumen hypomobility or atony/weakness due to dead rumen with no bacteria

  • Rumen pH will be <5.5

  • confirm history excess of grain in diet, and grain in faeces

• acidaemia and diarrhoea

• dehydrated, depressed, uncoordinated collapse → death

Treatment

• 1g/kg of sodium bicarbonate in 10L of water via stomach tube

• 0.5 g/kg of magnesium hydroxide in 5 L of water via stomach tube

• 0.5g/kg of sodium bicarbonate in 5L of water via stomach tube every 6hr x2

• 1mg/kg of flunixin meglumine via IV injection every 8hrs x3

• 10mg/kg of thiamine via IM injection every 24hrs x3

• 12 mg/kg of procaine penicillin G via IM x2 day for x3 days

• 1ml/50kg of chlorpheniramine maleate via IM injection every 8hrs x4

• 250 mL of calcium borogluconate

• monitor and reintroduce food

Small ruminant emergency = pregnancy toxaemia / ketosis

• last 2-4 weeks of gestation when sheep/goats have multiple young

• rapid foetal growth → less abdominal space = large impact on ewe

Clinical Signs

• anorexia → weak and recumbent

• depressed + separate from herd

• progress to neurological signs - tremors, star gazing, uncoordinated,

Treatment

• propylene glycol (60ml PO every 12hrs for 3 days OR 100mL/day)

• IV glucose or dextrose

• Ketosis and Preg Tox Treatment oral or as a drench or mix with feed

Prevention

• check ewe BCS

• ultrasound

• avoid mustering and yarding that prevent ewes from feeding for more than 12 hours

• in last 6 weeks prior to lambing

  • supplementary feeding

  • avoid procedures involving tipping, crutching, shearing, foot paring

• in last 2 weeks prior to lambing = avoid drafting, drenching, or vaccinating

Small ruminant emergency = milk fever

• high risk = older eyes, ewes in last few weeks of pregnancy, held off feed

Clinical Signs

• unable to walk → lying down on sternum

• nervous

• dilated pupils

• paralysis

• death within 1-2 days

Treatment

• INJ calcium borogluconate

• recovery is rapid in 30mins

• treatment can be repeated every 4-6 hours if animals don’t fully recover

Prevention

• supplement ewes with calcium - lick blocks and crushed limestone

• do not hold ewes off feed for longer than necessary (especially last 60 days of pregnancy

Small ruminant emergency = hypomagnesaemia or grass tetany

• sheep do not store magnesium = must ingest each day to ensure needs are met

• winter pasture / any scenario where there are = low legumes, calcium, magnesium

• changes in diet or quality of feed

• pre or post lambing

Clinical Signs

• nervous and shaking

• stiff legs

• staggering or falling over

• fast growing lambs

• ewes found dead

Treatment

• MgCl orally

• Magnesium sulphate IV (4 in 1 vaccine)

Small ruminant emergency = poliencephalmalacia

• Thiamine deficiency caused by sudden changes in diet leading to neurological disease (demyelination)

• reduces energy to the brain → star gazing

• Thiamine is normally produced by bacteria in rumen of cattle and sheep if diet is well balanced → produce enzymes which break down and inactive thiamine

Small ruminant emergency = urolithiasis

• common in early castrated males due to small urethra

• stones

  • Apatite = calcium carbonate hard beads due to diet of lucerne + legumes

  • Struvite = phosphatic stones, sandy due to diet high in grain + pellets

Clinical Signs

• straining or “constipated”

• lethargic

• drug reaction

• painful → excessive vocalisation and grinding teeth

• pulsation of penis

Treatment

• diazepam + poke or push penis out

• surgery = catheter to flush out or amputation