CFS 153 Exam #5

Why is no individual study ever definite on an issue?

No individual study is ever definite because every study has biases and limitations; researchers are human and cannot eliminate all error; scientific knowledge requires multiple studies and replication before anything can be considered reliable.

What do people mean when they say 'do your own research'?

They start with a belief they already hold, look for online sources that agree with them, ignore or reject expert consensus, and end up confirming what they believed from the beginning.

Why are most people unable to find the truth by 'doing their own research' on controversial topics?

They lack scientific expertise to properly evaluate studies, fall into confirmation bias, reject contradictory evidence, and find controversial topics too complex without deep training.

Why is convergence of evidence necessary?

One study isn't enough; findings are only robust when multiple studies with different methods all show the same result, proving it's not bias or a statistical fluke.

Why is the number of studies on a topic important to establish convergence of scientific evidence?

There must be multiple studies for convergence; more replications are better than fewer to ensure findings are not just statistical flukes.

Why is it necessary that scientific studies on a particular topic use a variety of methods?

Different methods help rule out biases; if some studies have limitations, others must confirm similar findings to ensure the results are true.

What produces scientific consensus?

A gradual coalescence of empirical evidence around a specific conclusion, leading scientists in the field to agree on the clarity of the convergence.

Why are literature reviews potentially more effective at identifying convergence than non-expert readings of individual reports?

Literature reviews critique research with full awareness of the entire body of professional knowledge, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding.

Why can a senior scientist write a better traditional literature review than a novice?

Senior scientists are dispassionate and capable of responding to evidence without being swayed by emotional and political biases.

What is the main strength and limitation of a traditional literature review?

Strength: Provides comprehensive insights; Limitation: May be conducted by researchers lacking adequate expertise.

What are two systematic aspects of a systematic review?

The systematic way studies are chosen and evaluated, including criteria for selection and ranking by evidence quality.

What is the main strength and limitation of systematic reviews?

Strength: Eliminates biases in selection and analysis, making it more objective; Limitation: Less creative than traditional reviews.

What does a meta-analysis do that other systematic reviews do not?

Conducts novel statistical analysis of aggregated data from previously published reports on a specific question.

What is the main strength and limitation of meta-analysis?

Strength: Overcomes issues of small or non-representative samples; Limitation: Requires a large body of reports using the same operational definitions.

What has meta-analysis found about the impact of parental divorce on children?

The effect size of parents' marital status on child's well-being is small (0.14 of a standard deviation), smaller in recent studies.

What has meta-analysis found about the impact of spanking on children's outcomes?

The link between spanking and outcomes is always detrimental; no evidence supports spanking as helpful.

What has meta-analysis found about the relationship between vaccines and autism?

The claim has not been supported by empirical evidence; numerous studies allow for meta-analytic review.

What are the two limitations of all literature reviews?

Publication bias and negative study bias.

What are the four areas of practice in which graduates of HDFS programs are most likely to work?

Child care (19%), parent education (16%), child abuse and neglect (15%), mental health care (14%).

Why does evidence-based practice require professionals to consult scientific sources after school?

Knowledge is cumulative, and professionals must keep up with new research to perform effectively.

How does science gradually settle on answers to important questions?

Through carefully conducted studies, peer review, replication of important findings, and convergence of findings from different disciplines.

What are the implications for practice of the slowness of scientific progress?

Professionals must adapt to evolving knowledge and practices, which can affect the implementation of evidence-based strategies.

What does public verifiability mean?

Scientific knowledge must be open to review, criticism, and confirmation by the scientific community.

How do HDFS professionals use scientific literacy to produce knowledge?

Through the use of scientific strategies within professional practice and participation in community-based research.

Why might HDFS professionals use scientific evidence for voting and advocacy?

To create improvement in a system that helps everyone affected within that system.

What is selection bias?

Occurs when the people selected for a study do not represent the population.

What is an example of selection bias?

Studying parenting stress but only recruiting parents who visit a parenting blog.

What is nonresponse bias?

Occurs when certain participants never respond, skewing the results.

What is an example of nonresponse bias?

Busy or highly stressed parents not answering surveys, making results look less stressful than reality.

What is social desirability bias?

People give answers that make them look good.

What is an example of social desirability bias?

A parent reports 'I never yell' even though they sometimes do.

What is reactivity in research?

Participants change behavior because they know they're being observed.

What is an example of reactivity?

Kids behave better when researchers are in the room.

What is observer bias?

The researcher sees what they expect to see.

What is an example of observer bias?

A researcher who believes girls are more cooperative rates girls' behavior as more cooperative.

What is reverse causality?

You don't know which variable caused the other.

What is an example of reverse causality?

Does parental stress cause tantrums, or do tantrums cause parental stress?

What is third-variable (confounding) causality?

A hidden variable explains both things being studied.

What is an example of third-variable causality?

Low sleep could cause both parental stress and child tantrums.

What is the Dunning-Kruger effect?

People with low knowledge in an area often overestimate their ability to understand it.

What is an example of the Dunning-Kruger effect?

A first-semester student thinks they can evaluate vaccine research better than experts.

What does confirmation bias mean?

The tendency to look for, believe, and remember information that supports what you already think.

What is an example of confirmation bias?

Someone who believes 'vaccines cause autism' only searches for videos or blogs repeating that claim.

What should professionals in HDFS do instead of 'doing their own research'?

Use scientific literacy to evaluate evidence, look for scientific consensus, rely on multiple studies, and apply evidence ethically.

What is scientific consensus?

The general agreement of experts in a field after many studies are done and results are replicated.

What is public verifiability achieved through?

Peer review, replication, and building cumulative knowledge over time.

What is convergence in research?

The coming together of different pieces of evidence from multiple studies that all point to the same conclusion.

What is a traditional literature review?

A summary written by an expert that selects studies to include and provides an organized overview.

What are the strengths of a traditional literature review?

Very flexible, can include the author's deep expertise, useful for broad, complex topics.

What are the limitations of a traditional literature review?

Selection of studies can be biased; quality depends heavily on the author.

What is a systematic literature review?

A review that uses a formal system to search for studies and decide which to include or exclude.

What are the strengths of a systematic literature review?

Reduces bias and is more objective than a traditional review.

What is a meta-analysis?

A type of systematic review that statistically combines results from many studies into one large analysis.

What are the strengths of meta-analysis?

Large combined sample sizes lead to stronger conclusions, reduce biases of small studies, and can overturn misleading findings.

What are the limitations of meta-analysis?

Only possible when many studies use the same operational definitions; less common in HDFS due to fewer standardized measures.

What is the effect size of divorce on child well-being according to meta-analysis?

Small effect size of 0.14 SD.

What is a more significant issue than divorce regarding child well-being?

Conflict is the bigger problem.

What is the effect of spanking on child outcomes?

Spanking is always linked to harmful outcomes, with an effect size similar to physical abuse.

What does the meta-analysis of vaccines and autism conclude?

There is no evidence that vaccines cause autism.

What is publication bias?

Studies with significant results are more likely to be published than those with negative findings.

What is the file drawer effect?

Negative studies remain unpublished, leading to a false impression of effectiveness.

Why is scientific consensus important?

It addresses limitations of individual studies and researcher biases by accumulating diverse, peer-reviewed evidence.

What are the two primary ways to consider scientific consensus?

1. Accumulation of peer-reviewed scientific papers; 2. Opinions of professional researchers.

What characterizes scientific consensus?

It relies on large, methodologically diverse evidence, is not the result of a vote, and can take decades to develop.

What is the core function of a meta-analysis?

To combine data from multiple studies to calculate an overall effect size.

What is scientific literacy?

The knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to find, interpret, evaluate, and use empirical evidence.

What is evidence-based practice?

Using empirical evidence to guide professional decisions.

Why is evidence-based practice necessary?

Science is cumulative but slow, requiring professionals to make decisions with incomplete evidence.

What is community-based science?

Empirical research conducted in real-world applied settings.

How can HDFS professionals contribute to community-based science?

By allowing researchers access to families, helping collect data, and collaborating with academic scientists.

What is evidence-based advocacy?

Working to create systematic change in policies or institutions that affect families.

Why must HDFS professionals understand research?

To improve lives by interpreting research, applying it, and advocating with evidence.

What is a common misconception about decision-making in HDFS?

Common sense is often seen as sufficient, but it is inadequate without research.

What is the danger of relying on incomplete evidence during decision-making?

It can lead to ineffective practices being adopted.

What is the importance of diverse evidence in scientific consensus?

It helps overcome biases and enhances the reliability of research findings.

What is the role of peer-reviewed papers in scientific consensus?

They provide a foundation for general agreement among qualified researchers.

What is the significance of the co-sleeping research example?

It illustrates how flawed definitions can lead to circular reasoning in literature reviews.

What should professionals do when encountering traditional practices in their field?

Question why practices are maintained rather than accepting them as valid.

What is the impact of scientific research on societal issues?

It has transformed agriculture, medicine, transportation, and technology.

How does evidence strengthen advocacy efforts?

It ensures that reforms are effective and truly help the intended populations.

What is the relationship between research and cognitive biases?

Research helps overcome cognitive biases that can affect decision-making.

What is the role of evidence in child care decision-making?

It guides decisions on practices like purchasing diverse toys or handling behavioral issues.

What is the significance of asking empirical questions in parent education?

It requires research rather than relying on intuition.

What is a key aspect of mental health care that professionals should consider?

Using pre-tests and repeated assessments for better evaluation.

What is evidence-based practice?

the use of research to shape one's professional work and answer questions that arise on the job

What is community-based science?

Empirical research conducted in applied community settings where professional care is being provided

What is evidence-based advocacy?

Work aimed at making systemic change within a formal organizational structure using research evidence

Why must we consult scientific sources in HDFS?

Because new knowledge is always being generated and scientific sources provide reliable guidance for professional practice

Why are common sense and personal experience inadequate in professional practice?

They are subjective and may be inaccurate or biased; they do not provide reliable evidence to guide decisions.