Studied by 3 peoplealkanes
ane
non-polar
van den waal forces
low m and b point
combustion reactions
alkyl halides
bromo, chloro, iodo, fluoro
alphabetical order
alkenes
-ene
double bonded carbons
unsaturated
alkynes
-yne
triple bonded
unsaturated
stereoisomers
same # of atoms bonded, different formation
cis-/trans- isomerism
cis- same side
not balanced
trans- opposite side
balanced
markovnikov’s rule
the attraction of H to other H atoms
in reactions, the atoms being replaced must be closest to the most amount of H as possible
aromatic hydrocarbons
-benzene
phenyl-
unsaturated
ring shape
3 double bonds
liquid @ room temp
non-polar
insoluble in water
does not undergo addition reactions
aliphatics
hydrocarbons lined up in a straight line
not a pleasant odour
burn with non-sooty flames
some unsaturated, some saturated
aromatic
ring structure
pleasant odour
all unsaturated
burn with sooty flames
alcohols
-ol
contains hydroxyl group (OH)
polar
higher b points than alkanes
soluble in water
made through the hydration of alkenes
primary alcohols
bonded to 1 other carbon chain
makes aldehydes
secondary alcohols
bonded to 2 other C chains
makes ketones
tertiary alcohols
bonded to 3 other C chains
non-reactive (NR)
e__th__ers
-oxy//-ane
2 carbon chains stick together by an oxygen
b points higher than alkanes, but lower than alcohols
good solvent
c-o bond makes them polar
alkyl groups make them non-polar
thiols
-thiol
contains sulfhydryl group (SH)
carbonyl group
C double bonded to an O
C=O
aldehyde
-al
carbonyl group @ the end of the C chain
strong, pungent smell (like roses)
polar & soluble in water
b points are high
[O] to make carboxylic acids
ketone
-one
carbonyl group in the middle of the chain
strong, pungent smell (like roses)
polar & soluble in water
b points are high
carboxylic acid
-oic acid
C double bonded to an O, & same C bonded to an OH
very polar
H bonding
m point is high
made from the [O] of an aldehyde
e__st__ers
-oate
fruity/floral smell
2 chains being bonded by an O and C
C has a double-bonded O on the other side
less polar and soluble than carboxylic acids
b points are lower
made from alcohols and carboxylic acids
amines
-amine
N present to connect chains
strong, fishy smell
polar
not very soluble
higher b and m points
primary amines
N attached to 1 alkyl group
made from an alkyl halide reacting with ammonia
secondary amines
N attached to 2 alkyl groups
made from a primary amine reacting with an alkyl group
tertiary amines
N attached to 3 alkyl groups
made form a secondary amine reacting with an alkyl halide
amides
-amide
2 chains joined by a N bonded to a C which has a double bonded O
N-C=O
mildly soluble in water
made from:
carboxylic acid reacting with ammonia
OR a primary amine reacting with a secondary amine
general polymers
polymer: large molecule that is built from monomers
monomers: one of the repeating units that make up a polymer
copolymers: different types of monomers combined to form a polymer chain
can be joined through addition or condensation
natural polymers: polymers made entirely of living things (ex. glucose, DNA, proteins)
synthetic polymers: made artificially to have desirable properties, or to serve a specific purpose (ex. polyester)
they undergo either addition or condensation reactions to perform certain actions
natural polymers
peptide bonds- produced when condensation reactions between amino acids build protein polymers
protein structure- the sequence of amino acids in a protein
nucleic acid- store and transmit genetic information
nucleotides- monomers of nucleic acid
5 carbon sugar
nitrogen-containing organic base
phosphoric acid molecule
synthetic addition polymers
the result of a reaction between monomers of an unsaturated hydrocarbon
plastics - synthetic polymer that can be molded into shape and will retain that shape when cooled
Low Density Polyethylene- branched molecule, synthesized by adding a small amount of compounds that have multiple double bonds
High Density Polyethylene- blow moulded products, mostly straight chain, can pack more tightly
synthetic condensation polymers
polymer made through many condensation reactions
ester linkages- a polymer formed by a series of esterification reactions, a copolymer
amide linkages- formed from a reaction between a carboxylic acid and amine
alkane reaction (1)
substitution
alkane + H(cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halides
alkene reactions (3)
alkene + 2H₂ → alkane
alkene + H₂O → alcohol
alkene + H(cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halide +<del>H₂O</del>
alcohol reactions (6)
1° alcohol + [O] → aldehyde
2° alcohol + [O} → ketone
3° alcohol + [O] → NR
alcohol + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
alcohol + (cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halide + H₂O
alcohol →heat→ ether + H₂O
aldehyde reactions (2)
aldehyde + [O] → carboxylic acid
aldehyde + 2H₂ → alcohol
carboxylic acid reactions (3)
carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester + H₂O
carboxylic acid + [O] → amide
carboxylic acid + amine → amide
ester reaction (1)
ester + acid/base → carboxylic acid + alcohol
alkyl halide reactions (3)
alkyl halide + ammonia → 1° amine
alkyl halide + 1° amine → 2° amine
alkyl halide +2° amine → 3° amine
UNIT CHANGE
--------------
Democrutis-present Atomic Theories
around 400 BC
atom was founded by hypothesizing that matter cut into smaller and smaller pieces would eventually become indivisible
John Dalton
reintroduced the atom
the billiard ball
elements consists of atoms
atoms cannot be created destroyed or divided
atoms of the same element have identical size, mass, and properties (which is FALSE)
JJ Thompson
discovered the electron (negatively charged subatomic particle)
plum pudding model
cathode ray tube
vacuum-like tube that spits out particles to measure the deflection of the beam of light
concluded the atom is a negatively charged electron inside a positively charged “shell”
Robert Milikan
mass of the electron
calculated the mass by using charged oil in a can and saw how fast or slow the oil would drop from level to level
Henri Becquerel
radioactivity
uranium is capable of emitting energy, particles, or waves that travel through space
3 types of radioactive emissions
alpha particles (He)
beta particles (e⁻)
gamma rays
Ernest Rutherford
the nucleus
gold foil experiment
alpha particles were fired at a thin gold sheet to measure how often they would deflect (1 in 8000)
Rutherford concluded
the atom has a nucleus: a dense, positively charged center made of proteins
electrons orbited the nucleus
James Chadwick
the neutron
when calculating the nass of the nuclei, Chadwick notices there was an imbalance and discovered neutral particles to make-up for the imbalance
positive nucleus containing neutral particles called neutrons
Classical Light: Huygens
light is a wave
refraction, reflection, and defraction
Classical Light: Maxwell
electromagnetic spectrum
made of magnetic and electric fields
Classical Light/Quantum: Hertz
photoelectric effect
the colour of light determines the energy of electrons emitted
shortwave electromagnetic radiation
Quantum: Planck
light behaves as a particle
blackbody: perfectly black object that does not reflect any light & emits various forms of light as a result of very high temps.
light is emitted in bursts of discrete quantities of energy, rather than continuous flow
quantum energy/quanta
Einstein
photons
EM radiation is a stream of particles called photons (units/packets of light energy)
quantum theory
the energy of a photon has to be above the threshold frequency, otherwise, no electrons are ejected
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
spectroscopy → invented by Bunsen & Kirchoff
used to study light passing through a plate and prism to create different coloured lights and emissions
dark light spectrum
start with white light & pass through a gas & analyze what’s left
absorption spectrum
lower to higher level
bright line spectrum
when a gas is exposed to an electric current then passed through a prism to emit light
emission spectrum
higher to lower level
Successes & Failures of the Bohr Model
gives a reasonable explanation for Mendeleev’s periodic law; periods result from the filling of electron energy levels
the max. # of electrons in each energy level corresponds to the elements in each period of the periodic table (2,8,8,18)
it explained the line spectrum of H
could not predict the spectra of ions of more than 1 electron
Bohr’s postulates
An electron in an atom revolves in certain stable orbits without emitting radiant energy.
Each atom has certain definite stable orbits.
Electrons can exist in these orbits.
Each possible orbit has definite total energy.
Quantum Mechanical Model: Louis De Brogilie
electrons have wave-like properties
if light behaves like a particle, a particle should also be able to behave like a wave
Quantum Mechanical Model: Erwin Schrodinger
used math and stats to combine De Brogilie’s and Einstein’s theories of light
energy levels
everything has wavelengths
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
it is impossible to know the exact position/location & speed of any electron @ any given time
Orbits vs. Orbitals
orbitals- the region around the nucleus when an e⁻ has a very high probability of being found
2 electrons
3D
distance from the nucleus varies
no set paths
orbits
2n² electrons
2D
distance from the nucleus is fixed
path is elliptical or circular
principal quantum number
principal, n
describes the size & energy of an orbital
differences between energy levels are not =
secondary quantum number
secondary, l
describes the shapes of sub shells of the main energy level
values of l describe the shape and energy of an atomic orbital
s=0, p=1, d=2, f=3, g=4
magnetic quantum number
magnetic, m
describes the orientation in space relative to other orbitals
m₁ is equal to the # of orbitals
+l or -l are integral values (including 0)
spin quantum number
spin, ms
describes the spin
possesses only 2 values; either +1/2 or -1/2
Pauli exclusion principle
no 2 electrons have the same 4 quantum numbers
each has 2 arrows (+ and -)
Aufbau principle
an energy level must be filled before moving on to the next higher level
Hund’s rule
each orbital at the same energy level must have 1 electron in ut before any orbital can contain 2 electrons
electron energy diagrams
ionic compounds
the electrostatic attraction between opposing charged ions
isoelectric- have the same # of electrons (Xe, I⁻, Cs⁺)
molecular compounds
the attraction of electrons from 1 atom to the nucleus of the other
covalent bond occurs when atoms share electrons
Lewis Theory of Bonding
atoms and ions are stable if they have a stable octet of electrons (or in pairs)
duet rule- a H atom from a stable configuration when it shares 2 electrons in order to obtain a full valance shell
octet rule- many atoms are more stable when they are surrounded by 8 e⁻ to achieve a full valance shell
lone pair- a pair of e⁻ that is not involved in bonding
VSEPR Theory
valance shell electron pair repulsion theory
based on the distance of electeons and their pull & push factors
VSEPR: linear
AX₂, AX₁, AX₂E₃
equal repulsion to pull
VSEPR: trigonal plannar
AX₃
3 bonds, no lone pairs
VSEPR: tetrahedral
AX₄
4 bonds
equal forces
VSEPR: trigonal pyramidal
AX₃E₁
3 bonds, 1 lone pair
VSEPR: bent/v-shaped
AX₂E₂
2 bonds, 2 lone pairs
VSEPR: seesaw
AX₄E₁
4 bonds, 1 lone pair
VSEPR: t-shaped
AX₃E₂
3 bonds, 2 lone pairs
VSEPR: square pyramidal
AX₅E₁
5 bonds, 1 lone pair
VSEPR: square plannar
AX₄E₂
4 bonds, 2 lone pairs
VSEPR: octahedral
AX₆
6 bonds, no lone pairs
types of bonds (3)
intramolecular- the chemical bond within a compound
intermolecular- the force that causes 1 molecule to be attracted to another molecule
van der waal forces- types of intermolecular forces
dipole dipole, H bonding, london dispersion
dipole dipole bonds
polar molecules
positive end and negative end line up to electrostatically join
H bonding
strong dipole dipole
H covalently bonded to N, O, or F
increases b points
important in biology for life to continue
london dispersion
non-polar molecules
increases b points
physical properties dependant on intermolecular forces
m points
b points
viscosity
solubility
binding affinity
surface tension
adhesion
hydrophobicity
elasticity
types of solids (4)
ionic
metallic
molecular
covalent network
ionic solids
metal + non-metal
hard and brittle
dissolves in water
high m point
v strong bonds
metallic crystals
closely packed metal atoms connected by electrostatic interactions and free-moving electrons
shiny/sheen
good conductor of heat and electricity
malleable
hard
not all the same properties
electron sea theory
explains why metallic solids dont always have the same properties
the valance electrons of the metal move around freely, which explains why properties are always different
molecular crystals
complex
intermolecular forces determine its structure and properties (london dispersion)
low m points
less hard
does not conduct electricity well
covalent network crystals
interwoven bonds and structure (v strong bonds)
electrons do not move freely
v high melting points
v hard
not v good conductors of electricity
carbon, diamonds, graphite, buckyball, carbon nanotubes, quartz
semi-conductors
a substance that conducts a slight electric current @ room temp but has increasing conductivity @ higher temps
full valance shell
non- conductors usually
n-type: conductivity significantly increases when dipped in arsenic (e⁻ get excited and jump a shell)
p-type: conductivity significantly increases when dipped in boron (valance e⁻ are lost)
Note 
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