Chem12 CPT Review (PART ONE)

no electronegativity, molecular polarity

alkanes

* ane
* non-polar
* van den waal forces
* low m and b point
* combustion reactions

alkyl halides

* bromo, chloro, iodo, fluoro
* alphabetical order

alkenes

* -ene
* double bonded carbons


* unsaturated

alkynes

* -yne
* triple bonded
* unsaturated

stereoisomers

* same # of atoms bonded, different formation

cis-/trans- isomerism

* cis- same side
* not balanced
* trans- opposite side
* balanced

markovnikov’s rule

* the attraction of H to other H atoms
* in reactions, the atoms being replaced must be closest to the most amount of H as possible

aromatic hydrocarbons

* -benzene
* phenyl-
* unsaturated
* ring shape
* 3 double bonds
* liquid @ room temp
* non-polar
* insoluble in water
* does not undergo addition reactions

aliphatics

* hydrocarbons lined up in a straight line
* not a pleasant odour
* burn with non-sooty flames
* some unsaturated, some saturated

aromatic

* ring structure
* pleasant odour
* all unsaturated
* burn with sooty flames

alcohols

* -ol
* contains hydroxyl group (OH)
* polar
* higher b points than alkanes
* soluble in water
* made through the hydration of alkenes

primary alcohols

* bonded to 1 other carbon chain
* makes aldehydes

secondary alcohols

* bonded to 2 other C chains
* makes ketones

tertiary alcohols

* bonded to 3 other C chains
* non-reactive (NR)

e__th__ers

* -oxy//-ane
* 2 carbon chains stick together by an oxygen
* b points higher than alkanes, but lower than alcohols
* good solvent
* c-o bond makes them polar
* alkyl groups make them non-polar

thiols

* -thiol
* contains sulfhydryl group (SH)

carbonyl group

* C double bonded to an O
* C=O

aldehyde

* -al
* carbonyl group @ the end of the C chain
* strong, pungent smell (like roses)
* polar & soluble in water
* b points are high
* \[O\] to make carboxylic acids

ketone

* -one
* carbonyl group in the middle of the chain
* strong, pungent smell (like roses)


* polar & soluble in water
* b points are high

carboxylic acid

* -oic acid
* C double bonded to an O, & same C bonded to an OH
* very polar
* H bonding
* m point is high
* made from the \[O\] of an aldehyde

e__st__ers

* -oate
* fruity/floral smell
* 2 chains being bonded by an O and C
* C has a double-bonded O on the other side
* less polar and soluble than carboxylic acids
* b points are lower
* made from alcohols and carboxylic acids

ami**n**es

* -amine
* N present to connect chains
* strong, fishy smell
* polar
* not very soluble
* higher b and m points

primary amines

* N attached to 1 alkyl group
* made from an alkyl halide reacting with ammonia

secondary amines

* N attached to 2 alkyl groups
* made from a primary amine reacting with an alkyl group

tertiary amines

* N attached to 3 alkyl groups
* made form a secondary amine reacting with an alkyl halide

ami**d**es

* -amide
* 2 chains joined by a N bonded to a C which has a double bonded O
* N-C=O
* mildly soluble in water
* made from:
* carboxylic acid reacting with ammonia
* OR a primary amine reacting with a secondary amine

general polymers

* polymer: large molecule that is built from monomers
* monomers: one of the repeating units that make up a polymer


* copolymers: different types of monomers combined to form a polymer chain
* can be joined through addition or condensation
* natural polymers: polymers made entirely of living things (ex. glucose, DNA, proteins)
* synthetic polymers: made artificially to have desirable properties, or to serve a specific purpose (ex. polyester)
* they undergo either addition or condensation reactions to perform certain actions

natural polymers

* peptide bonds- produced when condensation reactions between amino acids build protein polymers
* protein structure- the sequence of amino acids in a protein
* nucleic acid- store and transmit genetic information
* nucleotides- monomers of nucleic acid
* 5 carbon sugar
* nitrogen-containing organic base
* phosphoric acid molecule

synthetic addition polymers

* the result of a reaction between monomers of an unsaturated hydrocarbon
* plastics - synthetic polymer that can be molded into shape and will retain that shape when cooled
* Low Density Polyethylene- branched molecule, synthesized by adding a small amount of compounds that have multiple double bonds
* High Density Polyethylene- blow moulded products, mostly straight chain, can pack more tightly

synthetic condensation polymers

* polymer made through many condensation reactions
* ester linkages- a polymer formed by a series of esterification reactions, a copolymer
* amide linkages- formed from a reaction between a carboxylic acid and amine

alkane reaction (1)

* substitution
* alkane + H(cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halides

alkene reactions (3)

* alkene + 2H₂ → alkane
* alkene + H₂O → alcohol
* alkene + H(cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halide +~~H₂O~~

alcohol reactions (6)

* 1° alcohol + \[O\] → aldehyde
* 2° alcohol + \[O} → ketone
* 3° alcohol + \[O\] → **NR**
* alcohol + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
* alcohol + (cl/br/f/i) → alkyl halide + H₂O
* alcohol →*heat*→ ether + H₂O

aldehyde reactions (2)

* aldehyde + \[O\] → carboxylic acid
* aldehyde + 2H₂ → alcohol

carboxylic acid reactions (3)

* carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester + H₂O
* carboxylic acid + \[O\] → amide
* carboxylic acid + amine → amide

ester reaction (1)

* ester + acid/base → carboxylic acid + alcohol

alkyl halide reactions (3)

* alkyl halide + ammonia → 1° amine
* alkyl halide + 1° amine → 2° amine
* alkyl halide +2° amine → 3° amine

__**UNIT CHANGE**__

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Democrutis-present Atomic Theories

* around 400 BC
* atom was founded by hypothesizing that matter cut into smaller and smaller pieces would eventually become indivisible

John Dalton

* reintroduced the atom
* the billiard ball
* elements consists of atoms
* atoms cannot be created destroyed or divided
* atoms of the same element have identical size, mass, and properties (which is FALSE)

JJ Thompson

* discovered the electron (negatively charged subatomic particle)
* plum pudding model
* cathode ray tube
* vacuum-like tube that spits out particles to measure the deflection of the beam of light
* concluded the atom is a negatively charged electron inside a positively charged “shell”

Robert Milikan

* mass of the electron
* calculated the mass by using charged oil in a can and saw how fast or slow the oil would drop from level to level

Henri Becquerel

* radioactivity
* uranium is capable of emitting energy, particles, or waves that travel through space
* 3 types of radioactive emissions
* alpha particles (He)
* beta particles (e⁻)
* gamma rays

Ernest Rutherford

* the nucleus
* gold foil experiment
* alpha particles were fired at a thin gold sheet to measure how often they would deflect (1 in 8000)
* Rutherford concluded
* the atom has a nucleus: a dense, positively charged center made of proteins
* electrons orbited the nucleus

James Chadwick

* the neutron
* when calculating the nass of the nuclei, Chadwick notices there was an imbalance and discovered neutral particles to make-up for the imbalance
* positive nucleus containing neutral particles called neutrons

Classical Light: Huygens

* light is a wave
* refraction, reflection, and defraction

Classical Light: Maxwell

* electromagnetic spectrum
* made of magnetic and electric fields

Classical Light/Quantum: Hertz

* photoelectric effect
* the colour of light determines the energy of electrons emitted
* shortwave electromagnetic radiation

Quantum: Planck

* light behaves as a particle
* blackbody: perfectly black object that does not reflect any light & emits various forms of light as a result of very high temps.
* light is emitted in bursts of discrete quantities of energy, rather than continuous flow
* quantum energy/quanta

Einstein

* photons
* EM radiation is a stream of particles called photons (units/packets of light energy)
* quantum theory
* the energy of a photon has to be above the threshold frequency, otherwise, no electrons are ejected

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

* spectroscopy → invented by Bunsen & Kirchoff
* used to study light passing through a plate and prism to create different coloured lights and emissions
* dark light spectrum
* start with white light & pass through a gas & analyze what’s left
* absorption spectrum
* lower to higher level
* bright line spectrum
* when a gas is exposed to an electric current then passed through a prism to emit light
* emission spectrum
* higher to lower level

Successes & Failures of the Bohr Model

* gives a reasonable explanation for Mendeleev’s periodic law; periods result from the filling of electron energy levels
* the max. # of electrons in each energy level corresponds to the elements in each period of the periodic table (2,8,8,18)
* it explained the line spectrum of H

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* could not predict the spectra of ions of more than 1 electron

Bohr’s postulates

* An electron in an atom revolves in certain stable orbits without emitting radiant energy.
* Each atom has certain definite stable orbits.
* Electrons can exist in these orbits.


* Each possible orbit has definite total energy.

Quantum Mechanical Model: Louis De Brogilie

* electrons have wave-like properties
* if light behaves like a particle, a particle should also be able to behave like a wave

Quantum Mechanical Model: Erwin Schrodinger

* used math and stats to combine De Brogilie’s and Einstein’s theories of light
* energy levels
* everything has wavelengths

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

* it is impossible to know the exact position/location & speed of any electron @ any given time

Orbits vs. Orbitals

* orbitals- the region around the nucleus when an e⁻ has a very high probability of being found
* 2 electrons
* 3D
* distance from the nucleus varies
* no set paths
* orbits
* 2n² electrons
* 2D
* distance from the nucleus is fixed
* path is elliptical or circular

principal quantum number

* principal, n
* describes the size & energy of an orbital
* differences between energy levels are not =

secondary quantum number

* secondary, l
* describes the shapes of sub shells of the main energy level
* values of **l** describe the shape and energy of an atomic orbital
* s=0, p=1, d=2, f=3, g=4

magnetic quantum number

* magnetic, m
* describes the orientation in space relative to other orbitals
* m₁ is equal to the # of orbitals
* +l or -l are integral values (including 0)

spin quantum number

* spin, ms
* describes the spin
* possesses only 2 values; either +1/2 or -1/2

Pauli exclusion principle

* no 2 electrons have the same 4 quantum numbers
* each has 2 arrows (+ and -)

Aufbau principle

* an energy level must be filled before moving on to the next higher level

Hund’s rule

* each orbital at the same energy level must have 1 electron in ut before any orbital can contain 2 electrons

electron energy diagrams

ionic compounds

* the electrostatic attraction between opposing charged ions
* isoelectric- have the same # of electrons (Xe, I⁻, Cs⁺)

molecular compounds

* the attraction of electrons from 1 atom to the nucleus of the other
* covalent bond occurs when atoms share electrons

Lewis Theory of Bonding

* atoms and ions are stable if they have a stable octet of electrons (or in pairs)
* duet rule- a H atom from a stable configuration when it shares 2 electrons in order to obtain a full valance shell
* octet rule- many atoms are more stable when they are surrounded by 8 e⁻ to achieve a full valance shell
* lone pair- a pair of e⁻ that is not involved in bonding

VSEPR Theory

* valance shell electron pair repulsion theory
* based on the distance of electeons and their pull & push factors

VSEPR: linear

* AX₂, AX₁, AX₂E₃
* equal repulsion to pull

VSEPR: trigonal plannar

* AX₃
* 3 bonds, no lone pairs

VSEPR: tetrahedral

* AX₄
* 4 bonds
* equal forces

VSEPR: trigonal pyramidal

* AX₃E₁
* 3 bonds, 1 lone pair

VSEPR: bent/v-shaped

* AX₂E₂
* 2 bonds, 2 lone pairs

VSEPR: seesaw

* AX₄E₁
* 4 bonds, 1 lone pair

VSEPR: t-shaped

* AX₃E₂
* 3 bonds, 2 lone pairs

VSEPR: square pyramidal

* AX₅E₁
* 5 bonds, 1 lone pair

VSEPR: square plannar

* AX₄E₂
* 4 bonds, 2 lone pairs

VSEPR: octahedral

* AX₆
* 6 bonds, no lone pairs

types of bonds (3)

* int**ra**molecular- the chemical bond within a compound
* int**er**molecular- the force that causes 1 molecule to be attracted to another molecule
* van der waal forces- types of intermolecular forces
* dipole dipole, H bonding, london dispersion

dipole dipole bonds

* polar molecules
* positive end and negative end line up to electrostatically join

H bonding

* strong dipole dipole
* H covalently bonded to N, O, or F
* increases b points
* important in biology for life to continue

london dispersion

* non-polar molecules
* increases b points

physical properties dependant on intermolecular forces

1. m points
2. b points
3. viscosity
4. solubility
5. binding affinity
6. surface tension
7. adhesion
8. hydrophobicity
9. elasticity

types of solids (4)

* ionic
* metallic
* molecular
* covalent network

ionic solids

* metal + non-metal
* hard and brittle
* dissolves in water
* high m point
* v strong bonds

metallic crystals

* closely packed metal atoms connected by electrostatic interactions and free-moving electrons
* shiny/sheen
* good conductor of heat and electricity
* malleable
* hard
* not all the same properties

electron sea theory

* explains why metallic solids dont always have the same properties
* the valance electrons of the metal move around freely, which explains why properties are always different

molecular crystals

* complex
* intermolecular forces determine its structure and properties (london dispersion)
* low m points
* less hard
* does not conduct electricity well

covalent network crystals

* interwoven bonds and structure (v strong bonds)
* electrons do not move freely
* v high melting points
* v hard
* not v good conductors of electricity
* carbon, diamonds, graphite, buckyball, carbon nanotubes, quartz

semi-conductors

* a substance that conducts a slight electric current @ room temp but has increasing conductivity @ higher temps
* full valance shell
* non- conductors usually
* n-type: conductivity significantly increases when dipped in arsenic (e⁻ get excited and jump a shell)
* p-type: conductivity significantly increases when dipped in boron (valance e⁻ are lost)