AP Psychology Unit 2 vomit

everything in unit 2 i think

apparent movement

an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus

attention

a state in which an individual is focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others

binocular depth cue

Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.

bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

change blindness

Failing to notice differences in the environment.

closure

The tendency to complete figures that are incomplete.

cocktail party effect

Ability to attend to only one voice among many.

color constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

constancies

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.

context

refers to the environment in which a stimulus event occurs (e.g., the location or circumstances surrounding the stimulus); this affects memory, learning, judgment and perception

convergence

The ability to turn the two eyes inward toward each other to look at a close object, enabling the slightly different images of an object seen by each eye to come together and form a single image, allowing us to see depth with the use of both of our eyes.

figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

Gestalt psychology

The whole experience is greater than the sum of the individual parts.

inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our focus is directed elsewhere.

interposition

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer.

linear perspective

Two objects appear closer together as the distance from them increases, as seen in the tracks of a railroad that appear to converge on the horizon.

monocular depth cues

The information in the retinal image that gives us information about depth and distance but can be inferred from just a single eye.

perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

perceptual constancy

the phenomenon in which an object or its properties appear unchanged despite variations in the stimulus itself or in the external conditions of observation, such as object orientation or level of illumination.

proximity

Gestalt grouping principle; we group nearby figures together.

relative clarity

Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than more hazy objects

relative height

We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away; a visual and artistic perspective where distant objects are seen or portrayed as being smaller or higher in relation to items that are closer.

relative size

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away.

retinal disparity

A binocular for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

schema

a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving. For example, the schema "dorm room" suggests that a bed and a desk are probably part of the scene, that a microwave oven might or might not be, and that expensive Persian rugs probably will not be.

selective attention

The ability to focus on one stimulus while excluding other stimuli that are present.

shape constancy

A type of perceptual constancy in which an object is perceived as having the same shape when viewed at different angles.

similarity

The tendency to perceive things that look like each other as being part of the same group.

size constancy

The ability to perceive an object as being the same size despite the fact that the size of its retinal image changes depending on its distance from the observer.

texture gradient

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct pattern to a fine, indistinct pattern signals increasing distance. Objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed.

top down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

achievement test

tests designed to assess what a person has learned (AP Exam)

aptitude tests

tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

chronological age

the number of years one has been alive; one's age as determined by date of birth

construct validity

the extent to which a test accurately measures some abstract trait or psychological notion. For example, "hopelessness," "self-actualization," and "ego-strength" are all constructs.

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks).

fixed mindset

In Carol Dweck's model, a belief about intelligence that suggests it is not changeable

Flynn effect

the rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations

g (general intelligence)

a general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

growth mindset

In Carol Dweck's model, a belief about intelligence that suggests it can expand based on learning, experience, or practice.

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

intelligence quotient (IQ)

A standardized scale used to measure intellectual abilities.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance - a child who does as well as a 8 year old has that mental age

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior

psychometric principles

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting

split-half reliability

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two equal parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

standardization

the use of uniform procedures in test administration to ensure that all participants take the same test under the same conditions and are scored by the same criteria, which in turn ensures that results can be compared to each other.

stereotype lift

an increase in a group's test performance due to not being part of a negative stereotype

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

test-retest reliability

using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

multiple abilities of intelligence

One theory that intelligence is not just a single ability, but rather a several specific intelligences

Norming

The process of establishing a normal distrubtion of scores against which test-takers' results will be compared. For example, if designing a test for 3rd graders, one must obtain a normal distrubtion of test scores from representative 3rd graders that can be used to determine which levels of performance are low, middling, or high.

Percentile Rank

the location of a score in a distribution expressed as the percentage of cases in the data set with scores equal to or below the score in question. Thus, if a score is said to be in the 90th percentile, this means that 90% of the scores in the distribution are equal to or lower than that score.; often used as a way of comparing an individual's score on a test or measure to the scores of others in the same population

In-Group Variations

the differences that exist within a group of people (i.e. women, men, a specific ethnicity); there is a greater difference between in-groups than there are when comparing one group to another (between groups)

accommodation (Piaget)

a process in which schema are changed in response to new information (Change, Create)

acoustic encoding

The encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Alzheimer's disease

A neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.

anterograde amnesia

A phenomenon in which a person suffers a brain injury from a stroke or an accident and loses the ability to form new memories since the injury is called (Finding Dory)

assimilation

a process in which old or existing schema are used to interpret information (Same Schema)

autobiographical memory

a person's memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life (may contain episodic and semantic memories that are personally relevant)

automatic processing

The unconscious and effortless process of encoding information such as space, time, and frequency.

availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability on memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

capacity of short-term memory

The magical number 7 plus or minus 2 (5-9 items)

central executive

in Baddeley's model of working memory, this is the component that coordinates processes of working memory, including the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad; it focuses attention, switches attention between different tasks, and initiates long-term encoding and retrieval.

chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

cognition

The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

context-dependent memory

memories are more easily retrieved when one is in the same physical location in which those memories were encoded; for example, remembering events from 1st grade more easily when again in one's elementary school classroom

convergent thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

deep encoding/processing

Mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves a sense of effort, or overcoming resistance.

distributed practice

a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods of practicing different activities or studying other material, rather than occurring close together in time. In many learning situations, distributed practice is found to be more effective than massed practice. Also called spaced learning; spaced practice

divergent thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

duration of short-term memory

20 seconds to 20 minutes

echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds.

effortful processing

Mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves intentional work.

elaborative rehearsal

A memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory.

encoding

The processing of information into the memory system.

encoding failure

Failure to process information into memory.

episodic memory

the ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place; in addition to recalling the facts of a past event, an individual has to engage in "mental time travel" and remember that they were the one who lived the event. The hippocampus plays a key role in episodic memory formation and retrieval

executive functions

higher level cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving, action sequencing, task assignment and organization, flexibility in goal selection, and goal-conflict resolution.

explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

forgetting curve

A graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning has taken place. There is generally a sudden drop in retention shortly after learning, followed by a more gradual decline thereafter.

framing

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

functional fixedness

The tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its most common use.

gambler's fallacy

The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.

imagination inflation

the increased likelihood that a person will judge an event as having actually occurred (e.g., during childhood) when they imagine the event before making such a judgment.

implicit memory

Memory for information that is acquired and expressed unconsciously or automatically via facilitated performance on a related task.

infantile amnesia

The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.

levels of processing model

focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last; it includes structural, phonemic, and semantic processing

long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, includes knowledge, skills and experiences.

maintenance rehearsal

Repeating items over and over to maintain them in short-term memory, although it does not effectively promote long-term retention because it involves little elaboration of the information to be remembered.

massed practice

Encoding information all at once - less effective than distributed practice

memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information is known as

memory consolidation

The neural processes through which new information from STM is stabilized to result in the storage of enduring memories within LTM.

constructive memory

The process of bringing up old memories, filling in any missing pieces of information to make our recall more clear.