AP Psych Unit 3: Developmental Psychology

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

stability and change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?

nature vs. nurture

name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior

continuous stages of development

development is similar to walking up a slope and there is no sudden jump in the process. For example, as children grow up, they gradually start crawling, then sitting, then standing, and then finally walking.

discontinuous stages of development

the view that development changes can be divided clearly into unique stages. These stages cannot be skipped, and proceeding through them one by one is generally understood as necessary for individuals.

cross-sectional research

a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

cross-sequential research

an approach that combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods by following individuals of different ages for abbreviated periods of time

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm; substances can prime the mother's offspring later in life (EX: fetal alcohol spectrum disorder)

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking; in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions; proves alcohol has an epigenetic effect

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience; Adverse Childhood Experiences can slow development

Rozenweig and Bennet 1972

investigate role of environment on brain; rats in enriched and impoverished environments; Enriched rats had better developed cerebral cortex

synaptic pruning

a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development; also called, "sensitive period"; if a child is not exposed to language by age 7, they will never be able to have one

motor development in infants

sequence determined by cerebellum; 6 months: sitting unsupported; 8-9 months: crawling; 12 months: beginning to walk; 15 months: walking independently

fine motor development

development of motor abilities involving finely tuned movements of the hands such as grasping and manipulating objects; small muscles of the body

gross motor development

development of motor abilities including balance and posture as well as whole-body movements such as crawling; large muscles of the body and whole-body movement

rooting

a reflex in which a newborn turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

genetic mutations

Changes in the genetic material of cells that passes from one generation to another.

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence; length is determined by culture; tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates a period of "storm and distress"; high rates of selective synaptic pruning occurs

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing; marks the beginning of adolescence; early maturation leads to increased mental health problems

adulthood stages

Emerging Adulthood (18 to mid-20s), Early Adulthood (20s and 30s), Middle Adulthood (to age 65), Late adulthood (after 65)

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

death-defferal phenomenon

The phenomenon that the elderly seem to stay alive through family events, holidays, etc. and then pass away.

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

sex-linked traits

Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes.

prenatal development stages

conception, zygote, germinal stage (2 weeks post conception), embryonic stage (3 weeks to 8 weeks), fetal stage (9 weeks to birth)

influences on development

nutrition, anxiety, mother's general health, maternal age, teratogens

5 infant reflexes

grasping, startle, rooting, stepping, sucking

Babinsk reflex

sole of foot is stroked, big toe bends back toward the top of the foot and others fan out (occur up to 2 years old)

infant sensory development

well developed touch, taste, and smell; functional but not fully

developed hearing; vision is least developed (rods are

functional, cones take about 6 months to fully develop)

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex

male

XY

female

XX

intersex

a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

gender

in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex

agression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally; most common among men

relational agression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing; most common among women

male answer syndrome

men more likely to "hazard" answer rather than to admit they dont know an answer

X Chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromosome

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional ________ in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus (7 weeks post conception) and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

estrogen

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males; ______ levels peak during ovulation; in nonhuman mammals, this promotes sexual receptivity; females have testosterone and _______

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible; develop dramatically during puberty

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair; develop dramatically during puberty

spermarche

first ejaculation

menarche

the first menstrual period; occuring earlier and earlier due to high body fat, hormone-mimicking chemicals in diet, and family-related stress

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to act

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females; developed over history (especially in the last century); nomadic societies have little division of labor by sex; agricultural societies have shaped kids to assume more distinct roles

sexual agression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm someone physically or emotionally; can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault; expectations about gender roles factor into cultural attitudes about it

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity; develops at age 2/3

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished; how we aquire gender identity during childhood

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role; differs from culture to culture

androgyny

blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics; those who display this characterstic are more adaptive, resilient, self-accepting, flexible, and experience less depression

social script

a commonly understood pattern of interaction that serves as a model of behavior in familiar situations

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating; studied by Jean Piaget within childhood development

Jean Piaget

Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation. He also proposed that cognitive development is a process guided by biological maturation and environmental interaction

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information; Piaget proposed that children make these and that they actively construct and modify their understanding of the world through assimilation and accomodation

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities; looking, hearing touching, mouthing, and grasping; lack object permanence; exhibit stranger anxiety

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic; exhibit pretend play, egocentrism, and animism; express irreversibility (inability to mentally reverse an action)

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events; grasped conservation and reversibility

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts; involves symbols or imagined realities

Theory of Mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict; preschoolers develop inference abilities when they form _____

Lev Vygotsky

child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research

Lev Vygotsky theory of cognitive development

Children learn through social interactions. Sights and sounds have meaning. Learn about themselves through signs from others.

scaffold

in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

terminal decline

acceleration in deterioration of cognitive functioning prior to death

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's term for the skills—cognitive as well as physical—that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)

an extra X chromosome causes physical abnormalities

Turner Syndrome

A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.

Language

our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

3 components of spoken languages

phonemes, morphemes, grammar

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morphemes

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix); every word in a language has at least 1 ______

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others; includes semantics and syntax

semantics

the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

syntax

is the language's set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Universal Grammar (UG)

humans' innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages; proposed by Chomsky; explains why preschoolers pick up language so readily and use ______ so well

receptive language

ability to understand what is being said; begins at 4 months of age

productive language

ability to produce words; matures long after beginnings of receptive language

babbling stage

the stage in speech development, beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word-stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words; child knows that sounds carry meaning; gradually conforms to family's language

two-word stage (telegraphic speech)

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

cooing stage

at about 2 months the infant begins to make vowel-like sounds