Psychology- Psychological problems

Define Mental health and Mental disorder

Mental health- Emotion, thoughts, feelings, ability to solve problems, social connections and understanding of the world

Mental disorder- affects way you think, feel, behave or interact with others. Many diff. ones with diff. symptoms
(characteristics that are undesirable behaviours)

What consists of an ideal mental health according to Jahoda (1958)

Positive self-attitude- High self esteem
Self-actualisation- feeling you’ve become the best you can be (reached full potential)
Autonomy- independence and self-reliance
Resistance to stress- ability to respond effectively
Environmental mastery- Adapting to new situations
Accurate perception of reality- Perspective similar to others

How has incidence of mental health problems changed over time?

Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2016:
-24% of adults 16-74 accessing treatment in 2007
-Rose to 37% in 2014

2030- Approximately 2 million more adults in the UK will have mental problems than in 2013

How has increased challenges of modern living caused mental health problems?

Economic depiriviation one explanation for rise in mental health problems
People in lower income households more likely to have problems (27% in comparison to 15%)
Social isolation means people find it harder to get out and socialise, leading to more mental health problems

What are some cultural variations in beliefs around mental health

Different beliefs around world, what’s considered normal in the West may be abnormal in East
Eg. People in UK don’t tend to live with children and grandchildren which is thought of as strange amongst collectivist cultures

Social effects of mental health problems

Economic cost- about £22 billion a year spent on mental health and social care. Reduce psych. treatment but increase biological treatment as it’s cheaper

Need for social support- Need to use taxpayer’s money to increase social support systems for better quality of life

Increased crime rates- Majority not harmful but violence and incarceration among mentally ill individuals

Individual effects of mental health problems

Additional health problems: Stress can cause immune system to weaken (cortisol prevents normal function)

Low productivity

Can’t cope with daily demands- can be distressing for others if we see someone struggling to cope

Relationship problems- Breakdown of communications, isolation, inability to express

What are the two types of depression

Depression a psychological disorder with an abnormal emotional state (not just sad)

Bipolar depression- alternating periods of mania/depression
Unipolar depression- one mood state (Depression)

How does one diagnose depression?

Use of International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
Symptoms include:
-low mood
-reduced energy levels
-Changes in sleep patterns and appetite
-Decrease in self-confidence
-Self-harm/suicidal tendencies
Depends on number and severity of symptoms

Bipolar depression also includes manic episodes (periods of extremely energetic, happy moods that last for atleast a week)

What is the biological explanation for causes of depression?

Serotonin a neurotransmitter that has been linked to a number of symptoms of depression

If there’s lot of serotonin in synaptic cleft, message transmitted and postsynaptic neuron stimulated, leads to improved mood

Low serotonin level in brain (imbalance in neurotransmitters) means message not transmitted, leads to low mood (symptom of depression)

Serotonin affects memory, sleep and appetite (characteristics of depression) Depression due to low serotonergic transmission

What are some reasons for low serotonin levels?

Genetic- Person can inherit poor ability to produce serotonin

Environmental- Research shows typtophan key ingredient in producing serotonin. Comes from high protein foods and carbohydrates

Evaluate the biological explanation for depression

+Supported by research evidence. Study found lower serotonin levels in people with depression compared to control group who weren’t depressed. Suggests link between low serotonin levels and depression

-Reductionist theory. Not only caused by neurotransmitter imbalance as too simple. Combination of both stressful events along with certain vulnerabilities more likely

-Low levels may be an effect rather than cause. When depressed, you think negative of everything which leads to changes in brain as learning changes neurones and neurotransmitter production in brain

What is the psychological explanation for depression?

Faulty thinking- when depressed, they think negatively and ignore positives (pessimistic) Black and white thinking illogical as doesn’t represent reality. Creates further feelings of hopelessness and depression

Negative schemas- Self-schema the information we hold about ourselves. Negative means you’re likely to interpret all info. negatively.

Attributions- process of explaining cause of behaviour. Seligman proposed some people have negative attributional styles.
Internal attribution- your fault vs others.
Stable attribution- can’t be changed.
Global attribution- Broad vs specific.
Makes it difficult to see things can change, results in depression

What is the influence of nurture on attributional styles

Seligman suggested negative attributional style is result of nurture (learnt)

If someone has negative experiences, natural reaction to escape but if they can’t, they stop trying (learnt helplessness)

Explains why some blame things on themselves (internal) and believes it’ll always be like that (stable and global)

Evaluation of the psychological explanation of depression

-Reductionist theory: doesn’t take into account of biological factors. Research shows ppl with depression have lower levels of serotonin than those who don’t. Suggests link between low levels of serotonin and depression. Shows biological factors may affect depression not just cognitive

+Research shows support for learned helplessness. Seligman found dogs no longer tried to escape electric shocks they previously had no control over. Supports his explanation as dogs negative attributions taught them to give up which is why some people become depressed

+Real-world application as we use CBT to treat depression which causes people to think differently. If faulty, irrational thinking causes depression then CBT useful method of treating it. Used in real life to benefit the world

Properties of CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy)

Based on idea that thoughts affect behaviour/emotions.

Aims to help deal with problems positively and breaks it into smaller parts (rational thinking = good mental health)

Shown how to change negative patterns to feel better (reframing)

Deals with current problems not past

How does CBT work?

Session with a therapist every week or fortnight

Lasts for around 5-20 sessions with each lasting 30-60 min

Indirect- change the way a client thinks can change how they behave

Direct- behavioural action (eg. client plans something which should induce positive emotions)

Evaluation of CBT

+Long lasting effect as it treats cause rather than symptoms. Provides patients with tools they can use in future. Many long term benefits than other treatments

+Hollistic treatment, treats thoughts and behaviours considering experiences. More individual and considers you as a person. More helpful than as a system where you take drugs

-Requires a lot of time and commitment so may not reap the benefits if you don’t maintain and set aside time for it. Only helps certain typeof people who are willing to commit. Drugs easier

How do biological treatments for depression work?

Lower levels of serotonin transmission cause depression, depression can be avoided by raising these levels

Most common way through antidepressents, one common type is SSRIs

How do SSRIs work?

Only target serotonin at the synapse. Inhibit reuptake of serotonin so there’s more at the synaptic cleft

SSRIs block reuptake of serotonin which increases amount present in the clef and magnifies its effects

Evaluation for biological treatments of depression

+Easier and cheaper to take pills, especially more than psychotherapies such as CBT. More convenient so more people might be willing

-Body can produce less serotonin after a long time due to body adapting to no reuptake. Can be problematic
-Research shows serotonin levels of depressed not that different from normal. Effectiveness of drug may not be due to serotonin but rather a placebo

-Reductionist explanation- Medication targets serotonin and noradrenaline but only focuses on 1 factor

What is TRD?

If you’ve been treated for depression but your symptoms haven’t improved, you may have treatment-resistant depression
Standard treatments aren’t enough- may not help at all or symptoms are reoccurring

Describe Wiles et Al study (method, results, conc.)

469 Ppts with TRD (taking ADMs for 6+ weeks but symptoms present) with a BDI score of over 14
Randomly assigned to 2 conditions (ADMs or ADMs+CBT)
Patients measured for depression using Beck Depression Inventory
Followed up at various points over 4 years to determine duration of effect

Ppts who received CBT+ADMs had lower BDI score on average (46% had a 50+% reduction in symptoms)
Ppts who only took ADMs- 22% had 50+% reduction in symptoms

CBT+ADMs more effective in reducing depressive symptoms than ADMs alone

Evaluate Wiles et Al study

+Real-life use as it informs health care on better treatment. Healthier individuals in society if we treat depression effectively (improves society)

+Hollistic view- takes into account of many factors and treated as a person rather than as a system. Overall very successful

+Potentially takes more time due to CBT time commitment but costs relatively the same and results are better.

What are the symptoms of addiction

If 3+ present together within past year over period of time:
Compulsion- strong desire to use substance
Knowledge of negative consequences but persisting
Problems in controlling usage
High priority given at a cost to other areas of life
Withdrawal symptoms/state
Increased tolerance over time

Define dependence

Dependence- Physical or biological change when you’re not taking substance eg. withdrawal symptoms

Difference between substance misuse and abuse

Substance misuse is using substances incorrectly or not as intended eg. taking too often but abuse is using substances with intention of getting high (mood modification)

Outline social learning theory and link it to addiction

Learn what to do and think by observing other people
Imitate these behaviours esp. if they get rewarded
More likely to imitate someone we admire or identify ourselves with (association)
Identification- groups that we perceive we belong to based on memberships and what we think of ourselves

Observe and imitate someone using dangerous substances (esp. if someone we identify with)
If we see them being rewarded (eg. feeling good when high) more likely to imitate

Define social identity

Social identity- who we feel we are when with other people depending on the people

Difference between social norms and perceived social norms

Social norms a way of thinking or behaving considered appropriate in particular society but perceived social norms is what we THINK is appropriate

Outline social identity theory and link to addiction

Pressure to conform to social norms of peer group
Significant part of who we are defined by groups we belong to
To maintain and be accepted by group, behave or think like them which explains pressure to conform

May take drugs/alcohol to maintain group membership and fit in
Feel pressure to conform to social norms
May even advise/supply them to you

Evaluate the psychological explanation for addictions

+Supported by evidence. Mohammed et al sent out questionaire on why young ppl first took drugs. 28,841 responses. 55% said to have been introduced by a friend. Shows peer pressure a reality

-Correlation not equal to causation. Individuals may select others who are like them rather than conforming to social norms of group

+Real life application- Social norm advertising compared 2 programmes for reducing substance abuse. 1 about resistance skills and other about acceptability in peers which had more success

Outline biological explanation of addiction

Addictions around moderate to high inherited based on family studies, tends to run in families
Multiple genes can play a role but only creates vulnerability
Families share both genes and behaviours through experience
Not all members necessarily prone as predispotism not predisposition (needs environmental insult)

Describe Kaij’s twin study

310 Swede male twins on temperance board (for alcoholics.) Interviewed to collect info. (and from relatives too) about drinking habits and whether MZ/DZ

MZ twins- 61% both alcoholic
DZ twins- 39% both alcoholic
Percentage higher for MZ than DZ

Alcoholism related to hereditary factors as MZ>DZ but also environmental as MZ twins not 100%
Supports diathesis-stress model
Genes cause vulnerability only which is triggered by social problems

Evaluate Kaij’s twin study

+Subsequent research investigating hereditary of alcoholism found similar results. Supported results

-Low population validity- temperance board includes only public displays of alcohol abuse, ppl only registered if arrested etc. Doesn’t account for all alcohol problems

-Self-report issues- interviews mean people may lie to appear better (social desirability bias) + people don’t remember everything

What is a psychological method of treating addiction

Self-management- all actions taken by people to recognise, treat and manage own health
Use of self-management programmes such as Alcoholics anonymous which utilises the 12 step recovery programme

Fellowship of people who share experiences to solve their problems
Must have desire to stop drinking and primary purpose to stay sober and help achieve sobriety
Peer-sharing model where similar problems shared as equals
Recovered alcoholic passes along story and invites welcomer to join 12-step programme

Evaluate the psychological method of treating addiction (self-management programmes)

+Hollistic approach- focuses on whole person (emotions) instead of targeting stimulus/response such as aversion therapy. Overall more effective

-Not for everyone- Gray (2012) found 81% of people left within a year of joining AA. Needs high level of motivation. Difficult to gain data on effectiveness due to dropout rates

-Groups can fail if there’s lack of core motivated individuals and no support for continuation

+Power of groups come through social inclusion which raises confidence. Seeing someone similar succeed raises self-efficacy

How does classical conditioning work?

Before: Unconditioned stimulus → unconditioned response eg. Food → salivating
Neutral stimulus → No response eg. Clap

During: NS + UCS → UCR eg. Clap + Food → Salivating

After: Conditioned stimulus → Conditioned response eg. Clap → Salivating

Link classical conditioning to treating addiction

Aversion therapy- Form of behavioural therapy which an aversive stimulus (causing strong feeling of dislike or disgust) paired with the undesirable addictive behaviour to reduce or eliminate it

Eg. Alcohol paired with emetic drug (induces nausea and vomiting) so they become conditioned response to alcohol

Phrases that reminds person of gambling written on a card. Pack made of these cards along with non-gambling related cards. Person reads cards, when gambling card comes up, receives a mild shock. Gambling phrases associated with pain

Smoker rapidly smokes multiple cigs. which creates disgust and nausea, Now when smoker sees a cig. Feels very disgusted (conditioned response)

Evaluate aversion therapy

-Poor long-term effectiveness- Very good results in controlled environment but much less effective in outside world due to lack of aversive stimulus. Eventually becomes placebo

-Relapse rates very high- success depends whether patient can avoid stimulus they’ve been conditioned against

+Holistic approach- Can be combined with CBT to be more effective. Aversion therapy deals with the behaviour whilst CBT deals with cause of addiction. Overall, good method of treating