Comprehensive Guide to Behavioral Genetics, Psychoanalysis, and Cultural Psychology

Why is behavioral genetics sometimes controversial?

Tied to eugenics; may imply traits like intelligence, poverty, and criminality are genetically fixed and unchangeable.

Heritability.

Percent of variance that is genetic (0-1); calculated as h = 2 × (Rmz - Rdz).

Twin studies (heritability design).

Twins vary in genetic similarity while sharing environment; limitation: identical twins may be treated differently.

Shared environment

Environmental influences siblings share (e.g., family SES, parenting).

Nonshared environment

Unique influences not shared by siblings (e.g., peers, neighborhoods).

Gene-environment interaction

Genes expressed differently depending on environment.

Evocative transaction

Genes elicit different responses from the environment.

Active transaction

Genes influence selection of environments.

Reactive transaction

Genes influence others' responses to the person.

Equal environments assumption

Assumes twins experience similar environments.

Epigenetics

Life experiences influence whether genes are turned on/off.

Environment of evolutionary adaptiveness (EEA)

Environment that shaped species' adaptations.

Criticisms of evolutionary theory

Difficult to test; "just-so" stories; modern environments differ; can justify harmful behavior; may appear sexist; ignores culture.

What women value in partners (evolution view)

Financial security; indicates ability to provide for offspring.

What men value in partners (evolution view)

Attractiveness; indicates health and fertility.

Sex differences in casual sex

Men aim to spread genes widely; women conserve energy and limited reproductive opportunities.

Frequency-dependent selection

Multiple strategies maintained; common strategies become less adaptive.

Balancing selection

Maintains genetic variation by favoring multiple alleles.

Life history theory

Fast strategy (many early offspring, low investment) vs slow strategy (few later offspring, high investment).

Inclusive fitness

Helping relatives increases survival of shared genes.

Unconscious mind

Fears, urges, unacceptable desires outside awareness.

Preconscious mind

Stored knowledge and memories.

Conscious mind

Thoughts and perceptions currently in awareness.

Id

Source of drives; pleasure principle; unconscious.

Superego

Morals and values; internalized rules.

Ego

Mediator between id and superego; reality principle.

Denial

Rejecting thought or feeling.

Repression

Blocking recall of anxiety-provoking material.

Projection

Attributing unwanted impulses to others.

Displacement

Redirecting impulse to safer target.

Regression

Reverting to childlike behavior.

Rationalization

Creating logical explanation for behavior.

Intellectualization

Using unemotional, cold reasoning.

Reaction formation

Behaving opposite to true impulse.

Sublimation

Channeling impulse into acceptable activity.

Free association

Talking without censorship to reveal unconscious.

Dream analysis

Uncovers latent (true) meaning beneath manifest content.

Criticisms of psychoanalytic theory

Too complex; unfalsifiable; case-study based; pessimistic; sexist.

Influential psychoanalytic ideas today

Unconscious processes matter; mental conflict shapes behavior; childhood experiences influence personality; talking helps.

Psychic determinism

No accidents; slips reveal unconscious.

Psychic conflict

Mind's parts are in conflict due to early experiences.

Transference

Repeating earlier relationship dynamics with new people.

Prototypes

Early relationships form templates for later ones.

Fixation

Unresolved stage conflict leaves energy behind.

Parapraxes

Slips of tongue or memory from unconscious.

Doctrine of opposites

Extremes resemble each other more than midpoints.

Manifest content (dream)

What the dream appears to be about.

Latent content (dream)

Underlying true meaning.

Tight vs loose cultures

Degree to which deviations from norms are tolerated.

Tough vs easy cultures

How easy it is to achieve cultural goals.

Individualism vs collectivism

Individual needs vs group needs emphasized.

Head vs heart cities

Creativity & critical thinking vs love, gratitude, religiosity.

Honor cultures

Sensitive to threats to reputation.

Face cultures

Value social harmony and avoiding public conflict.

Dignity cultures

Individual worth independent of others' opinions.

Critiques of individualism-collectivism

Not true opposites; vary within countries; definitions differ; ignores structural barriers.

Universal personality components

Social self-regulation; dynamism.

Bilinear acculturation model

Maintaining heritage and host culture → integration, separation, assimilation, marginalization.

Unilinear acculturation model

More of one culture means less of the other.

Acculturation

Adapting to the dominant culture.

Enculturation

Learning one's heritage culture.

Interdependence

Group needs prioritized over individual needs.

Self-construal

How one sees themselves in relation to others.

Cultural relativism

Understanding behavior by its cultural context.

Ethnocentrism

Evaluating other cultures by one's own standards.

Biculturalism

Functioning in two cultures.

Bicultural identity integration

Managing whether cultures feel blended or conflicting.

Frame switching

Shifting between cultural mindsets depending on context.

Blending

Integrating influences from multiple cultures.

Emics

Culture-specific aspects.

Etics

Universal aspects across cultures.

Emotion components

Appraisal, physical response, action tendencies, nonverbal expression, subjective experience.

Basic emotions

Joy, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise.

Evolutionary evidence for emotion

Emotions signal states and solve survival/social problems.

Circumplex model

Emotions vary along valence and arousal.

Display rules

Cultural norms about emotion expression.

Individual differences in emotion

Differences in levels of emotions due to genetics and personality.

Reappraisal

Reframing emotional situation.

Suppression

Inhibiting experience or expression; often unhealthy.

Ontological self ("I")

Experiencing self; observes and acts.

Epistemological self ("Me")

Observable self; traits and descriptors.

Functions of self-knowledge

Self-regulation, information filtering, understanding others, maintaining identity.

Self-schema

Mental framework about self; measured with self-referent encoding task.

Self-recognition

Not uniquely human; tested with mirror test.

Self-discrepancy theory

Actual-ideal gap → depression; actual-ought gap → anxiety/guilt.

Healthy self-esteem

Stable, realistic, grounded in achievement.

Narcissism

High but unstable self-esteem; defensive; not based on real accomplishments.

Sociometer theory

Self-esteem monitors social acceptance.

Declarative self

Conscious knowledge about the self.

Procedural self

Unconscious behavioral patterns.

Self-reference effect

Self-related information remembered better.

Self-efficacy

Belief in ability to accomplish goals.

Self-enhancement

Overly positive view of self.

Deal-makers in relationships

Warmth, intelligence, passion, stability.

Deal-breakers in relationships

Disrespect, abusiveness, arrogance, laziness, clinginess.

Dark triad

Narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism.

Why attachments develop

Protection, survival, early caregiver bonds.

Infant and adult attachment similarities

Separation distress, proximity seeking, secure/avoidant/anxious patterns.

Integrity tests

Measure honesty and rule-following; controversial.

Trait most predictive of workplace success

Conscientiousness.