IB Enviro Systems- everything to memorize

so far only structure 1- the first 44 slides of 2.2

Nitrite

NO₂^-

Nitrate

NO₃^-

Hydroxide

OH^-

Hydrocarbonate

HCO₃^-

Carbonate

CO₃^2-

Sulfite

SO₃^2-

Sulfate

SO₄^2-

Phosphite

PO₃^3-

Phosphate

PO₄^3-

Ammonium

NH₄⁺

180

• 2 electron domains

• linear electron domain geometry

• 2 bonding electron domains

• 0 pairs of non-bonding electrons

• linear molecular geometry

120

• 3 electron domains

• planar triangular electron domain geometry

• 3 bonding electron domains

• 0 pairs of non-bonding electrons

• planar triangular molecular geometry

117

• 3 electron domains

• planar triangular electron domain geometry

• 2 bonding electron domains

• 1 pair of non-bonding electrons

• V-shaped molecular geometry

109.5

• 4 electron domains

• tetrahedral electron domain geometry

• 4 bonding electron domains

• 0 pairs of non-bonding electrons

• tetrahedral molecular geometry

107

• 4 electron domains

• tetrahedral electron domain geometry

• 3 bonding electron domains

• 1 pair of non-bonding electrons

• pyramidal molecular geometry

105

• 4 electron domains

• tetrahedral electron domain geometry

• 2 bonding electron domains

• 2 pairs of non-bonding electrons

• V-shaped molecular geometry

Atom

smallest particle representing an element

Element

made of one type of atom

molecule

bonded nonmetals (monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic)

compound

bonded atoms that are different

What Are the Diatomics

• Iodine

• Hydrogen

• Nitrogen

• Bromine

• Oxygen

• Chlorine

• Flourine

Water Formula

H2O

Carbon Dioxide

CO2

Methane

CH4

Sulfuric Acid

H2SO4

Calcium Carbonate

CaCO3

Sodium Chloride

NaCl

Hydrochloric Acid

HCl

Ammonia

NH3

Substances

• uniform chemical composition

• made of one atom or one type of compound

Mixtures

• non-unform chemical composition

• made up of more than one substance mixed together.

• either homogenous or heterogenous

Mass number

# of protons + # of neutrons

RAM equation

RAM= [(mass no. x percent abundance) + (mass no. x percent abundance)…]/100

Percent abundance formula

(Mass of Isotope/average atomic mass) x 100%

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

we cannot know where an electron is at any given moment in time, we only know the probable location.

Wave-particle duality

electrons behave as both particles and waves (which are continuous in motion)

The electromagnetic spectrum (from left to right)

Radio waves{ Micro-waves{ Infrared radiation{ Visible light{ UV{ X-rays{ Gamma-rays

Wavelength

the distance between the crests or the distance between troughs

Frequency

the number of wave cycles to pass during a given unit of time

Amplitude

the waves height from 0 to the crest

Crest

top of the wave

Trough

bottom of the wave

High frequency relates to:

short wavelength and high energy

low frequency relates to:

long wavelength, low energy

Color spectrum from left to right

ROYGBV (red orange yellow green blue violet)

All waves travel at what speed

the speed of light ( equation c=frequency x wavelength)

Energy level characteristics

• not equidistant, they’re closer the further away from the nucleus

• Visible light n=2

• infrared n= 3

• UV n=1

  • they increase in energy the farther away from the nucleus they are

    • electrons are excited and rise in energy levels then go back to their ground state

Groups

columns and says the number of valence electrons in the atoms of group

Periods

Rows and it’s the numbers of energy levels electrons occupy at ground state for the atoms of that element

Ion

an atom that has a positive or negative charge and they form when they lose or gain electrons

Cations

Lose electrons and is an ion with a positive charge

Anions

Gains electrons and is an ion with a negative charge

When an electron is in an orbital of higher energy…

it is most likely far from the nucleus

Atomic orbitals charecteristics:

• 3 dimensional areas where there is a high probability that the electron will be located

• S orbitals are spherical

• P orbitals are dumbbell-shaped

• there are 3 orbitals located on an x, y, and z axis

Aufbau Principle

lowest energy orbitals are filled first

Pauli exclusion principle

up to 2 electrons can occupy an orbital but they must have an opposite spin to reduce repulsion (up arrow is clockwise, down arrow is counter clockwise)

Hund’s rule

electrons are placed in orbitals of a sublevel one electron at a time

electron configuration of ions

• cations: determined by subtracting electrons that the ion loses out of the outermost occupied orbitals of its neutral configuration

scientific notation

the coefficient must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10 and must contain all the significant digits in the number, the exponent expresses places the number is moved (negative is left and positive is right)

What is avogadros number

6.02214076 × 10²3

conversion between moles and rep. particles

1 mole= Avg. constant rep. particles

mol of gas at stp conversion

1 mol of any gas= 22.7 dm³

Temperature conversions

Kelvin from Celcius = 0C+ 273.15K

what is standard pressure and standard temperature (STP)

• standard temperature 273 K or 0 C

  • Standard pressure 100 kPa

What is the limiting reactant (LR)

the reactant in the reaction that will run out

what is the excess reactant

the reactant in excess (you will not run out of it)

Mole ratio

a conversion factor derived from the coefficients of a balanced chemical equation that helps you convert from one reactant or product in the balanced equation to another

Titration equations

• C1V1/N1 = C2V2/N2

Gas law/ ideal gases equation

PV= nRT

Analyze the units of PV=nRT

P= in Pa NOT kPa

V= must be in m³

n= moles

R- constant, 8.31

T= must be in K (C + 273.15)

ionic compounds

are made up of cations and anions and are a FOA between cations and anions

Metallic substances

made up of metals only. Are the FOA between metal cations and delocalized valence electrons

Covalent substances

made up of non-metals only. Are the FOA between nuclei and shared electrons

Redox reactions

a chemical reaction in which changes in the oxidation states of a species occur throughout the reaction

oxidation= increase of oxidation state

reduction= decrease of oxidation state

Oxidation state

value we assign to an atom in a compound to measure the electron control, density or possession that the atom has relative to when it is alone as a pure element

Atoms in the free (uncombined) element have an oxidation state of:

zero

In simple ions, the oxidation state is the:

same as the charge on the ion ex.. Mg2+, oxidation state is +2

The oxidation states of all the atoms in a neutral compound must:

add up to zero

The oxidation states of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion must:

add up to the charge of the ion

The usual oxidation state for an element is:

the same as the charge on its most common ion ex. group 1 elements have oxidation state +1 (H is usually +1)

Most main group non-metals and transition metals have oxidation states that:

vary in different compounds depending on the conditions and other elements present

Oxidation state rules of O

it’s -2 except in peroxides where it is -1 and OF2 where it is +2

Oxidation state rules of H

it’s +1 except metal hydrides where is it -1

Oxidation state rules of Cl

it’s -1 except when it’s combined with O or F

Ionic compounds have what structure:

lattice structure

Describe the ionic lattice structure

• 3-d

• crystalline

• FOA of ionic compounds cause them to surround themselves with ions of the opposite charge

• ionic bonds are non-directional

• Layout of lattice depends of size of the ions but always is based on a repeating unit

Ionic bond physical properties

• high melting points and boiling points

• low volatility

  • both because of the strength of the bonds

• solids at room temperature

• generally soluble in polar solvents but not in nonpolar solvents

• don’t conduct when in solid state

• usually brittle

solubility

the ease with a solid (the solute) dissolves in a liquid (the solvent) to form a solution

Lattice enthalpy is:

the change in enthalpy (the total energy in a substance) and it tells us how strong the ionic bonds are in a lattice, to break or weaken the FOA is considered an endothermic process

high lattice enthalpy takes a ____ amount of energy to weaken/break the FOA between the ions

large

low lattice enthalpy takes a ____ amount of energy to weaken/break the FOA between the ions

small

Factors that affect lattice anthalpy:

• ionic radius (greater radius, lower enthalpy)

• ionic charge (grater charge, greater enthalpy)

Atomic radius

it’s the half distance between the nuclei of 2 bonded identical atoms (ex. H2)

Effective nuclear charge

the net positive charge from the nucleus that an electron can “feel” attraction from. Increases across a period and decreases down a group

electron shielding

core electrons shield the valence from the full attractive forces of the protons in the nucleus. Stays the same across a period and increases down a group

electron repulsion

electrons repel each other because of their same charge, this causes the electron cloud to expand

Ionic radius trands:

increases across a period, increases down a group

First ionization energy

the amount of energy required to remove the first valence electron from one gaseous atom, depends on how strong the FOA is between the nucleus and the valence electrons of an atom

electronegativity 1.8 categories

ionic compounds >1.8 electronegative difference

covalent compounds <1.8 electronegative difference

In covalent bonds, the shared electrons sit..

between the nuclei of the nonmetal atoms