so far only structure 1- the first 44 slides of 2.2
Nitrite
NO2-
Nitrate
NO3-
Hydroxide
OH-
Hydrocarbonate
HCO3-
Carbonate
CO32-
Sulfite
SO32-
Sulfate
SO42-
Phosphite
PO33-
Phosphate
PO43-
Ammonium
NH4+
180
2 electron domains
linear electron domain geometry
2 bonding electron domains
0 pairs of non-bonding electrons
linear molecular geometry
120
3 electron domains
planar triangular electron domain geometry
3 bonding electron domains
0 pairs of non-bonding electrons
planar triangular molecular geometry
117
3 electron domains
planar triangular electron domain geometry
2 bonding electron domains
1 pair of non-bonding electrons
V-shaped molecular geometry
109.5
4 electron domains
tetrahedral electron domain geometry
4 bonding electron domains
0 pairs of non-bonding electrons
tetrahedral molecular geometry
107
4 electron domains
tetrahedral electron domain geometry
3 bonding electron domains
1 pair of non-bonding electrons
pyramidal molecular geometry
105
4 electron domains
tetrahedral electron domain geometry
2 bonding electron domains
2 pairs of non-bonding electrons
V-shaped molecular geometry
Atom
smallest particle representing an element
Element
made of one type of atom
molecule
bonded nonmetals (monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic)
compound
bonded atoms that are different
What Are the Diatomics
Iodine
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Bromine
Oxygen
Chlorine
Flourine
Water Formula
H2O
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
Methane
CH4
Sulfuric Acid
H2SO4
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3
Sodium Chloride
NaCl
Hydrochloric Acid
HCl
Ammonia
NH3
Substances
uniform chemical composition
made of one atom or one type of compound
Mixtures
non-unform chemical composition
made up of more than one substance mixed together.
either homogenous or heterogenous
Mass number
# of protons + # of neutrons
RAM equation
RAM= [(mass no. x percent abundance) + (mass no. x percent abundance)…]/100
Percent abundance formula
(Mass of Isotope/average atomic mass) x 100%
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
we cannot know where an electron is at any given moment in time, we only know the probable location.
Wave-particle duality
electrons behave as both particles and waves (which are continuous in motion)
The electromagnetic spectrum (from left to right)
Radio waves{ Micro-waves{ Infrared radiation{ Visible light{ UV{ X-rays{ Gamma-rays
Wavelength
the distance between the crests or the distance between troughs
Frequency
the number of wave cycles to pass during a given unit of time
Amplitude
the waves height from 0 to the crest
Crest
top of the wave
Trough
bottom of the wave
High frequency relates to:
short wavelength and high energy
low frequency relates to:
long wavelength, low energy
Color spectrum from left to right
ROYGBV (red orange yellow green blue violet)
All waves travel at what speed
the speed of light ( equation c=frequency x wavelength)
Energy level characteristics
not equidistant, they’re closer the further away from the nucleus
Visible light n=2
infrared n= 3
UV n=1
they increase in energy the farther away from the nucleus they are
electrons are excited and rise in energy levels then go back to their ground state
Groups
columns and says the number of valence electrons in the atoms of group
Periods
Rows and it’s the numbers of energy levels electrons occupy at ground state for the atoms of that element
Ion
an atom that has a positive or negative charge and they form when they lose or gain electrons
Cations
Lose electrons and is an ion with a positive charge
Anions
Gains electrons and is an ion with a negative charge
When an electron is in an orbital of higher energy…
it is most likely far from the nucleus
Atomic orbitals charecteristics:
3 dimensional areas where there is a high probability that the electron will be located
S orbitals are spherical
P orbitals are dumbbell-shaped
there are 3 orbitals located on an x, y, and z axis
Aufbau Principle
lowest energy orbitals are filled first
Pauli exclusion principle
up to 2 electrons can occupy an orbital but they must have an opposite spin to reduce repulsion (up arrow is clockwise, down arrow is counter clockwise)
Hund’s rule
electrons are placed in orbitals of a sublevel one electron at a time
electron configuration of ions
cations: determined by subtracting electrons that the ion loses out of the outermost occupied orbitals of its neutral configuration
scientific notation
the coefficient must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10 and must contain all the significant digits in the number, the exponent expresses places the number is moved (negative is left and positive is right)
What is avogadros number
6.02214076 × 10²3
conversion between moles and rep. particles
1 mole= Avg. constant rep. particles
mol of gas at stp conversion
1 mol of any gas= 22.7 dm³
Temperature conversions
Kelvin from Celcius = 0C+ 273.15K
what is standard pressure and standard temperature (STP)
standard temperature 273 K or 0 C
Standard pressure 100 kPa
What is the limiting reactant (LR)
the reactant in the reaction that will run out
what is the excess reactant
the reactant in excess (you will not run out of it)
Mole ratio
a conversion factor derived from the coefficients of a balanced chemical equation that helps you convert from one reactant or product in the balanced equation to another
Titration equations
C1V1/N1 = C2V2/N2
Gas law/ ideal gases equation
PV= nRT
Analyze the units of PV=nRT
P= in Pa NOT kPa
V= must be in m³
n= moles
R- constant, 8.31
T= must be in K (C + 273.15)
ionic compounds
are made up of cations and anions and are a FOA between cations and anions
Metallic substances
made up of metals only. Are the FOA between metal cations and delocalized valence electrons
Covalent substances
made up of non-metals only. Are the FOA between nuclei and shared electrons
Redox reactions
a chemical reaction in which changes in the oxidation states of a species occur throughout the reaction
oxidation= increase of oxidation state
reduction= decrease of oxidation state
Oxidation state
value we assign to an atom in a compound to measure the electron control, density or possession that the atom has relative to when it is alone as a pure element
Atoms in the free (uncombined) element have an oxidation state of:
zero
In simple ions, the oxidation state is the:
same as the charge on the ion ex.. Mg2+, oxidation state is +2
The oxidation states of all the atoms in a neutral compound must:
add up to zero
The oxidation states of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion must:
add up to the charge of the ion
The usual oxidation state for an element is:
the same as the charge on its most common ion ex. group 1 elements have oxidation state +1 (H is usually +1)
Most main group non-metals and transition metals have oxidation states that:
vary in different compounds depending on the conditions and other elements present
Oxidation state rules of O
it’s -2 except in peroxides where it is -1 and OF2 where it is +2
Oxidation state rules of H
it’s +1 except metal hydrides where is it -1
Oxidation state rules of Cl
it’s -1 except when it’s combined with O or F
Ionic compounds have what structure:
lattice structure
Describe the ionic lattice structure
3-d
crystalline
FOA of ionic compounds cause them to surround themselves with ions of the opposite charge
ionic bonds are non-directional
Layout of lattice depends of size of the ions but always is based on a repeating unit
Ionic bond physical properties
high melting points and boiling points
low volatility
both because of the strength of the bonds
solids at room temperature
generally soluble in polar solvents but not in nonpolar solvents
don’t conduct when in solid state
usually brittle
solubility
the ease with a solid (the solute) dissolves in a liquid (the solvent) to form a solution
Lattice enthalpy is:
the change in enthalpy (the total energy in a substance) and it tells us how strong the ionic bonds are in a lattice, to break or weaken the FOA is considered an endothermic process
high lattice enthalpy takes a ____ amount of energy to weaken/break the FOA between the ions
large
low lattice enthalpy takes a ____ amount of energy to weaken/break the FOA between the ions
small
Factors that affect lattice anthalpy:
ionic radius (greater radius, lower enthalpy)
ionic charge (grater charge, greater enthalpy)
Atomic radius
it’s the half distance between the nuclei of 2 bonded identical atoms (ex. H2)
Effective nuclear charge
the net positive charge from the nucleus that an electron can “feel” attraction from. Increases across a period and decreases down a group
electron shielding
core electrons shield the valence from the full attractive forces of the protons in the nucleus. Stays the same across a period and increases down a group
electron repulsion
electrons repel each other because of their same charge, this causes the electron cloud to expand
Ionic radius trands:
increases across a period, increases down a group
First ionization energy
the amount of energy required to remove the first valence electron from one gaseous atom, depends on how strong the FOA is between the nucleus and the valence electrons of an atom
electronegativity 1.8 categories
ionic compounds >1.8 electronegative difference
covalent compounds <1.8 electronegative difference
In covalent bonds, the shared electrons sit..
between the nuclei of the nonmetal atoms