Entire UIL Biology

Atoms → Molecules → Macromolecules

Life is based on carbon (organic chemistry).

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose). Function: Energy storage (glycogen) and structural support (cellulose in plants).

Lipids

Nonpolar (hydrophobic). Includes triglycerides (energy storage), phospholipids (cell membranes), steroids (cholesterol, hormones).

Proteins

Made of amino acids. Functions: Enzymes (catalyze reactions), structural (collagen), transport (hemoglobin).

Nucleic Acids

DNA (stores genetic info), RNA (transfers info for protein synthesis).

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes lack nuclei (bacteria); eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles (animal/plant cells).

Nucleus

DNA storage.

Mitochondria

ATP production (cellular respiration).

Chloroplasts

Photosynthesis (plants only).

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER (protein synthesis), Smooth ER (lipid synthesis).

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies/packages proteins.

Lysosomes

Digestive enzymes (autophagy).

Fluid Mosaic Model

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins (transport, signaling).

Passive Transport

No energy: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.

Active Transport

Requires ATP: Sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis/exocytosis.

Cell Cycle

Interphase (G1, S, G2): Growth/DNA replication.

Mitosis (PMAT)

Prophase: Chromosomes condense. Metaphase: Align at equator. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate. Telophase: Nuclei reform.

Cytokinesis

Cytoplasm divides (cleavage furrow in animals; cell plate in plants).

Checkpoints (G1, G2, M)

Controlled by cyclins/CDKs. Mutations → cancer (uncontrolled division).

DNA Replication

Semi-Conservative: Each new DNA strand has one parent/template strand.

Enzymes in DNA Replication

Helicase (unwinds), DNA polymerase (synthesizes), ligase (joins Okazaki fragments).

Meiosis

Produces gametes (haploid). Two divisions: Meiosis I (homologous pairs separate), Meiosis II (sister chromatids separate).

Genetic Variation

Crossing over (prophase I), independent assortment (metaphase I).

Lytic Cycle

Virus replicates rapidly, lyses host (e.g., flu).

Lysogenic Cycle

Viral DNA integrates into host genome (e.g., HIV).

Metabolism

Catabolism (breaks down molecules); anabolism (builds molecules).

Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis: Glucose → 2 pyruvate (2 ATP, 2 NADH). Krebs Cycle: Pyruvate → CO2 (2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂). ETC: Oxidative phosphorylation (~28 ATP). Total: ~32 ATP/glucose.

Photosynthesis

Light Reactions: Thylakoids; H₂O → O₂ + ATP + NADPH. Calvin Cycle: Stroma; CO₂ → glucose (uses ATP/NADPH).

Protein Synthesis

Transcription: DNA → mRNA (nucleus). Translation: mRNA → protein (ribosome; tRNA brings amino acids).

Operons (prokaryotes)

Lac operon (inducible), Trp operon (repressible).

Eukaryotic Regulation

Transcription factors, epigenetics (methylation/acetylation).

Point Mutations

Silent (no effect), missense (amino acid change), nonsense (stop codon).

Frameshift Mutation

Insertion/deletion alters reading frame.

Mendelian Inheritance

Dominant/recessive alleles (Punnett squares).

Law of Segregation

Alleles separate during gamete formation.

Law of Independent Assortment

Traits inherited independently (unless linked).

Non-Mendelian Inheritance

Incomplete Dominance: Blending (red + white = pink). Codominance: Both alleles expressed (blood type AB).

Codominance

Both alleles expressed (blood type AB).

Polygenic Traits

Multiple genes (skin height).

DNA Technology

PCR, CRISPR, gel electrophoresis.

Natural Selection

Fitness = reproductive success.

Microevolution

Genetic drift (bottleneck/founder effect), gene flow, mutations.

Macroevolution

Speciation (allopatric/sympatric), extinction.

Evidence of Evolution

Fossil record, homologous structures, molecular biology (DNA similarities).

Phylogeny

Cladograms show evolutionary relationships.

Domains

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.

Taxonomy

Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species.

Biogeochemical Cycles

Carbon, nitrogen, water.

Community Dynamics

Predation, competition, symbiosis (mutualism/parasitism).

Homeostasis

Negative feedback (e.g., insulin/glucagon).

Nervous System

Neurons transmit signals.

Circulatory System

Heart pumps blood (O₂/CO₂ exchange).

Malaria

Caused by Plasmodium (protozoan).

Vector of Malaria

Female Anopheles mosquito.

Symptoms of Malaria

Cyclic fever, anemia, organ failure.

Treatment of Malaria

Antimalarials (chloroquine); prevention via mosquito nets.

Level 1/2 Questions

Memorize definitions/processes.

Level 3 Questions

Practice hypothesis-based questions (use Campbell textbook).

Time Management

Skip lengthy questions, return later.

Recommended Resource: Campbell Biology

Detailed diagrams.

Recommended Resource: Bozeman Science Videos

Complex topics simplified.

Final Tip

For State, focus on Malaria, evolution, and experimental design.

Atoms

Smallest unit of matter (protons, neutrons, electrons).

Carbon (C)

Forms 4 covalent bonds → backbone of organic molecules.

Covalent Bonds

Strong (shared electrons; e.g., C-H in methane).

Ionic Bonds

Transfer of electrons (Na⁺Cl⁻).

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak, between polar molecules (H₂O bonds).

Monosaccharides

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), fructose, galactose.

Disaccharides

Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose).

Polysaccharides

Starch (plants): α-glucose, energy storage.

Glycogen

Branched α-glucose, liver/muscle storage.

Cellulose

β-glucose, plant cell walls (indigestible by humans).

Triglycerides

Glycerol + 3 fatty acids; saturated (no double bonds, solid) vs. unsaturated (double bonds, liquid).

Phospholipids

Amphipathic (hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail); form bilayers in membranes.

Steroids

4-ring structure; cholesterol (membrane fluidity), testosterone/estrogen (hormones).

Amino Acids

20 types; linked by peptide bonds (dehydration synthesis).

Primary Structure of Proteins

Sequence of amino acids.

Secondary Structure of Proteins

α-helices/β-sheets (H-bonds).

Tertiary Structure of Proteins

3D folding (disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions).

Quaternary Structure of Proteins

Multiple polypeptides (e.g., hemoglobin).

Enzymes

Biological catalysts (e.g., amylase); lower activation energy.

DNA

Double helix (A-T, C-G); stores genetic info.

RNA

Single-stranded (A-U, C-G); mRNA (transcript), tRNA (translation), rRNA (ribosomes).

Nucleus

DNA storage, transcription

Mitochondria

ATP production (Krebs cycle, ETC)

Chloroplast

Photosynthesis (plants/algae)

Rough ER

Protein synthesis/modification

Smooth ER

Lipid synthesis, detoxification

Golgi Apparatus

Protein sorting/export

Lysosome

Intracellular digestion (pH ~4.5)

Peroxisome

Breaks down fatty acids, detoxifies H₂O₂

Simple Diffusion

Small/nonpolar (O₂, CO₂)

Facilitated Diffusion

Polar/charged (glucose via carrier proteins)

Osmosis

Water movement (hypotonic → hypertonic)

Primary Active Transport

Na⁺/K⁺ pump (3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in per ATP)

Secondary Active Transport

Cotransport (e.g., glucose + Na⁺ symport)

Endocytosis

Phagocytosis (solids), pinocytosis (liquids)

Exocytosis

Vesicle fusion (e.g., neurotransmitter release)

G1 Cyclin (D)

Binds CDK4/6 → progression to S phase

S Cyclin (E/A)

Initiates DNA replication