Pharmacology of Prostaglandins and NSAIDs

Prostaglandins

A group of lipid compounds that have diverse hormone-like effects in the body, including modulation of inflammation, pain, and fever.

Thromboxanes

A type of eicosanoid that promotes platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction, playing a role in blood clotting.

Leukotrienes

Inflammatory mediators derived from arachidonic acid that are involved in allergic reactions and asthma.

Cyclooxygenase (COX)

An enzyme that converts arachidonic acid into prostaglandins and thromboxanes, with two main isoforms: COX-1 and COX-2.

COX-1

An isoform of cyclooxygenase that is involved in protecting the gastric mucosa and maintaining normal platelet function.

COX-2

An isoform of cyclooxygenase that is induced during inflammation and is the target of many anti-inflammatory drugs.

Arachidonic Acid

A polyunsaturated fatty acid that serves as a precursor for the synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes.

Alprostadil

A synthetic prostaglandin used to treat erectile dysfunction and to maintain patent ductus arteriosus in newborns.

Misoprostol

A synthetic prostaglandin used to prevent gastric ulcers and induce labor.

Dinoprostane

A synthetic prostaglandin used for cervical ripening and to induce labor.

Latanoprost

A prostaglandin analog used to lower intraocular pressure in glaucoma treatment.

Ibuprofen

A nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that reduces pain, inflammation, and fever by inhibiting COX enzymes.

Aspirin

An NSAID that irreversibly inhibits COX enzymes, providing anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects.

Reye's Syndrome

A rare but serious condition that can occur in children following viral infections, associated with aspirin use.

Acetaminophen

A pain reliever and fever reducer that is not classified as an NSAID and has minimal anti-inflammatory effects.

Salicylism

A condition resulting from salicylate toxicity, characterized by symptoms such as tinnitus, confusion, and hyperventilation.

NSAIDs

A class of drugs that provide analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes.

Epoprostenol

A synthetic prostaglandin used to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension by causing vasodilation.

Pulmonary Vasodilation

The widening of blood vessels in the lungs, which can improve blood flow and reduce blood pressure in pulmonary circulation.

Gastrointestinal Effects of NSAIDs

NSAIDs can cause gastrointestinal irritation and bleeding by inhibiting protective prostaglandins in the stomach.

Cardiovascular Effects of NSAIDs

COX-1 inhibitors can provide cardiovascular protection, while COX-2 inhibitors may increase cardiovascular risks.

Drug Interactions with NSAIDs

NSAIDs can displace other drugs from protein binding sites, potentially increasing their effects and side effects.

Inflammation

A biological response to harmful stimuli, characterized by redness, swelling, heat, and pain, often leading to tissue repair.

DMARDs

Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs that slow the progression of rheumatoid arthritis and improve long-term outcomes.

Methotrexate

An antimetabolite and antifolate drug commonly used as a first-line treatment for rheumatoid arthritis.

Hydroxychloroquine

An antimalarial drug that is also used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, particularly in early or mild cases.

Leflunomide

An immunomodulatory drug that inhibits pyrimidine synthesis, leading to cell cycle arrest in autoimmune lymphocytes.

Sulfasalazine

A medication used to treat inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis, with an unclear mechanism of action.

Glucocorticoids

A class of steroid hormones that provide rapid symptomatic relief in inflammatory conditions but are not suitable for long-term use.

Biologic DMARDs

Targeted therapies that modify the immune response in autoimmune diseases, often used when traditional DMARDs are inadequate.

TNF-alpha inhibitors

A class of biologic agents that block tumor necrosis factor-alpha, a cytokine involved in systemic inflammation.

Adalimumab

A monoclonal antibody that binds to TNF-alpha, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases.

Colchicine

A medication used to treat gout by reducing inflammation and pain, acting on neutrophil migration.

Allopurinol

A xanthine oxidase inhibitor that lowers uric acid levels in the blood, used to prevent gout attacks.

Febuxostat

A non-purine xanthine oxidase inhibitor used to manage hyperuricemia in gout patients.

Probenecid

A uricosuric agent that increases uric acid excretion in the urine, used in the treatment of gout.

Pegloticase

An enzyme that converts uric acid to allantoin, facilitating its excretion and used in chronic gout treatment.

Bacteriostatic

Antimicrobial agents that inhibit the growth and reproduction of bacteria without killing them.

Bactericidal

Antimicrobial agents that kill bacteria directly.

Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)

The lowest concentration of an antimicrobial that prevents visible growth of a microorganism after a specified time.

Cell wall inhibitors

Antimicrobial agents that disrupt the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, leading to cell lysis.

Antimicrobial agents

Substances used to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

Peptidoglycan

A polymer that forms a protective layer in the cell wall of bacteria, providing structural support.

Beta-lactamase

An enzyme produced by some bacteria that provides resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics by breaking down their structure.

MRSA

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, a type of bacteria that is resistant to several antibiotics.

Antipseudomonal penicillins

A class of antibiotics effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a common cause of infections.

Pharmacokinetics

The study of how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted in the body.

Tetracyclines

A class of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria by binding to the ribosome.

Macrolides

A group of antibiotics that inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit.

Vancomycin

An antibiotic used to treat severe infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, particularly MRSA.

Daptomycin

An antibiotic used to treat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA, but not effective against pneumonia.

Glycylcyclines

A class of antibiotics similar to tetracyclines, effective against a variety of resistant bacteria.

Oxazolidinones

A class of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis and are effective against drug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria.

Clindamycin

An antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis and is primarily used for treating infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria.

Fidaxomicin

An antibiotic used specifically for treating Clostridium difficile infections, with minimal systemic absorption.

Carbapenems

A class of broad-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotics effective against a wide range of bacteria, including resistant strains.

Monobactams

A class of beta-lactam antibiotics that are effective against Gram-negative bacteria and resistant to some beta-lactamases.

Polymyxins

A class of antibiotics that disrupt the cell membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, often used as a last resort.

Resistance mechanisms

Various strategies employed by bacteria to evade the effects of antibiotics, such as enzyme production or altered target sites.

Extended-spectrum penicillins

Penicillins that are effective against a broader range of bacteria, including some Gram-negative organisms.

Hypersensitivity reactions

Adverse immune responses that occur in some individuals following exposure to certain antibiotics.

Cefalosporins

A group of antibiotics that are structurally related to penicillins and are used to treat a variety of infections.

Aminoglycosides

A class of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis and are often used for serious infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria.

Resistance to antibiotics

The ability of bacteria to survive and grow in the presence of drugs that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth.

Bacterial transcription inhibitors

Antibiotics that prevent bacteria from synthesizing RNA, thereby inhibiting protein production.

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)

A type of pneumonia acquired outside of healthcare settings, often treated with specific antibiotics.

Eosinophilia

An increase in eosinophils in the blood, which can be a side effect of certain antibiotic treatments.

Nephrotoxicity

Toxicity that affects the kidneys, which can be a side effect of some antibiotics.

C. difficile

A bacterium that can cause severe diarrhea and colitis, often following antibiotic treatment.

Glycopeptides

A class of antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis and are effective against Gram-positive bacteria.

Prosthetic heart infection

Infections that occur in patients with artificial heart valves, often requiring specific antibiotic treatment.

Enterococci

A group of bacteria that are part of the normal gut flora but can cause serious infections, especially in immunocompromised patients.

Chlamydia

A common sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis, often treated with antibiotics.

Syphilis

A sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, typically treated with penicillin.

Gentamicin

An aminoglycoside antibiotic used to treat serious infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria.

Doxycycline

A tetracycline antibiotic used to treat a variety of infections, including those caused by atypical bacteria.

Erythromycin

A macrolide antibiotic used to treat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria and some Gram-negative bacteria.

Aztreonam

A monobactam antibiotic effective against Gram-negative bacteria, often used in patients with penicillin allergies.

Faccium

A type of antibiotic that is bactericidal against certain resistant bacteria, administered intravenously.

Fluoroquinolones

A class of broad-spectrum antibiotics effective against a variety of bacterial infections, including those caused by C. difficile.

Folate Antagonists

Medications that inhibit the synthesis of folate, necessary for cell proliferation, commonly used in treating infections and certain cancers.

Cotrimoxazole

A combination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole that has synergistic effects against various infections, including MRSA and UTIs.

Urinary Tract Antiseptics

Medications that help reduce the frequency of chronic urinary tract infections by denaturing bacterial proteins and nucleic acids.

Antimetabolites

Drugs that interfere with the metabolic processes of cells, particularly during the S phase of the cell cycle, used in cancer therapy.

5-Fluorouracil (5-FU)

An antimetabolite that depletes cellular thymidine, inhibiting DNA synthesis, commonly used in treating solid tumors.

Anthracyclines

A class of antitumor antibiotics derived from Streptomyces bacteria, known for their ability to intercalate DNA and inhibit topoisomerase.

Alkylating Agents

Chemotherapeutic agents that cause covalent binding to DNA, leading to cell death, effective against rapidly dividing cells.

Nitrofurantoin

An antibiotic that inhibits DNA synthesis and is used primarily for urinary tract infections, well absorbed orally.

Cladribine

A purine analog used in the treatment of hairy cell leukemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, blocking DNA elongation.

Gemcitabine

A cytidine analog used in the treatment of pancreatic cancer, affecting DNA synthesis.

Bleomycin

An antitumor antibiotic that causes DNA scission and is used in treating testicular cancer and Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Cyclophosphamide

An alkylating agent that requires metabolic activation and is used in various cancers, known for causing bladder toxicity.

Fostamycin

An antibiotic that inhibits cell wall synthesis, indicated for urinary tract infections caused by specific bacteria.

Levofloxacin

A fluoroquinolone antibiotic used as a first-line treatment for community-acquired pneumonia.

Moxifloxacin

A broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibiotic effective against Gram-positive bacteria and used for respiratory infections.

Trimethoprim

A folate reduction inhibitor that is well absorbed orally and often used in combination with sulfonamides for synergistic effects.

Capecitabine

An oral prodrug of 5-FU used in the treatment of metastatic breast and colorectal cancer.

Azacitidine

A cytidine analog used for treating acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes, incorporated into RNA.

Delafoxacin

An antibiotic used for skin structure infections, effective against resistant bacteria.

Hyperbilirubinemia

A condition characterized by elevated levels of bilirubin in the blood, which can be a side effect of certain medications.