CMN 277 Exam 2

Stereotypes of Black people:

Pickaninny

Black children, primitive, unkempt, out of control, animal-like “gator-bait”

Stereotypes of Black people: Women

Mammy

Sapphire

Jezebel

Mammy: loving caregiver for master’s kids, tyrant to her own kids; asexual, unattractive, fat, dominant to Black men; thinks servitude is good

Sapphire: sassy, “angry” Black women

Jezebel: Hypersexualized, seductress

Stereotypes of Black people: Men

Uncle Tom

Brute

Sambo/minstrel

Co*n

Uncle Tom: older Black slave; smiling; content as a slave; dependable; reliable — weak image of a Black man

Brute: savage, chasing after White virgins; violent (this justified breeding in the eyes of slaveowners, like jezebel) (also justified lynching in their eyes)

Sambo/minstrel: laughing, docile, lazy, dance and sing, care-free, happy

C*on: replaced sambo stereotype; buffoon; Black people could not handle freedom; inept; sometimes violent (lazy but thinks he deserves more) (modern example: rappers)

Media representation of Black people

overrepresented as criminals

underrepresented as crime victims

mostly relegated to SitComs

Entertainment images of Latinos

Criminal

Law enforcer

Latin lover

Harlot

Comic/buffoon

Criminal: usually gangster; cartel

Law enforcer: articulate, well-groomed, respected (maybe DEA officer [breaking bad])

Latin lover: male, romantic, well groomed, heavy accent, hot temper, sexual aggression

Harlot: female, hot-tempered and sexually dressed

comic/buffoon: heavy accent, lazy, secondary status. lack of intelligence

media representation of Latinos

They are less represented in media, but Native Americans, Asians, Middle Easterners are even more absent than them

only 3-6% of the TV population

associated with criminal immigrants and undocumented immigrants

Media depictions of Middle Easterners

Like Native Americans and Asians, they are rarely seen on entertainment TV

depicted more after 9/11 — after 9/11 they were depicted as terrorists ½ the time

violent, buffoonish, “uncivilized”

Images of White women

75% of all characters are White MEN

more equal half and half split on soap operas (love interests always needed)

30% of TV workforce is White women: mainly nurses, secretaries, and waitresses

women are usually younger and more attractive than men; also less rational and smart than men

Four stages of portrayal overall in media:

Non-recognition: group is invisible (transgender people)

Ridicule: worst stereotypes of group

Regulation: regulated to social order roles (particularly in law enforcement; Latino cop) — creates false dichotomy: theres “good guys and bad guys”

Respect: wide variety of roles: white cis men

Discursive practices: typology-individual programs

Assimilation and discourse of invisiility

worlds constructed have elimination or marginalization of social/cultural difference (EX: Friends depicts 6 white people living together when they live in the most diverse city)

treats issues of nonwhite presence and racism as individual problems

Discursive practices: typology-individual programs

Pluralists or separate but equal

centers nonwhite characters in nonwhite worlds parallel to those of whites

recognizes race as a basis of cultural difference

still related to an unnamed hegemonic order

Discursive practices: typology-individual programs

Multiculturalism/Diversity

complex persepctives and representations of nonwhite life in America

Explicitly engage cultural policies of diversity

Attempt to discuss important issues such as apartheid, discrimination, nationalism (EX: Abbott Elementary)

The dissociation model:

Chronic activation: constantly associate groups with stereotypical traits; sometimes through media depictions

Automatic activation: automatically associate group member with stereotype

High Cognitive load: few cognitive resources/more likely to use the stereotype

Low cognitive load: greater cognitive resources available, less likely to use the stereotype

the dissociation model process: using the stereotype even when you don’t want to

• everyone knows about the stereotype

• Endorsement of stereotypes varies

• Sometimes use of stereotype is automatic

• cognitive load (motivation and ability) determines use

the role of media in creating and maintaining stereotypes:

• assigning groups to roles helps create stereotypes

• prototype process (prototypes are abstractions taken over time from numerous examples)

  • Prototypes form from a drip process each media representation is a drip that makes a big splash over time

    • Firefighter - red - strong - male - white

  • Exemplars process (exemplars are a few memorable examples/ instances that stand out)

    • exemplars form from a drench process: media focus on one or two examples that shape your conceptions on the entire group

      • Osama Bin laden is an exemplar of a terrorist

The goodness of fit principle: media’s role in dissolving stereotypes

• strong counter-stereotypical representations are not as effective as moderate counter-stereotypical representations

  • Barack Obama is a counter stereotype, but people say “oh but he’s just one of the good ones/ an outlier” because he is too strong of a counter representation

  • We dont associate strong counter-stereotypers with the overall group, but this dissociation is much more difficult with moderate counter-stereotypers

Key effects findings: TV News and entertainment

exposure to criminal suspects are absent any information about their race makes you think of Black people

Heavy TV news viewers tend to endorse the stereotype that Black people are violent

• Repeatedly seeing Black suspects (drip effect)

• OJ simpson (drench; its always drench if you can remember the name of the suspect)

Exposure to terrorism related stories increases fear of muslims and encourages Islamophobia, even if the terrorist isn’t muslim

• Bi-directional effect (Terrorism ←- —> Muslims)

White viewers justify the actions of white actors more than Black actors

Internet News and gaming

Exposure to non-traditional news blogs increases racism against Black people

Black violent game characters more associated with violence compared to white characters

• Jax Briggs, mortal kombat - uses brute force, dangerous bc his strength

Polysemy

people take different meanings away from the same media text

• Sydney Sweeney jeans/genes ad

Interpretive Community

shared values and experiences shape how we understand media texts

• EX: understanding Bad Buny’s halftime show requires knowledge of Puerto Rican culture

Intertextuality

previous media texts influence interpretations of subsequent media texts

• understanding current lecture in light of the last six weeks of lecture

• why remakes/parodies work/ diss tracks

Third Person effect

belief that music affects others more than ourselves

Dominant ideology/ Dominant reading:

media messages that reinforce power relationships

EX: Nicki Minaj “yes i do the cooking yes i do the cleaning”

Oppositional reading

interpretation that challenges power relationships

EX: WAP — sex positive; not a sex object but taking control of sexuality

Cultural lens and ethnic identification

using media to enhance self esteem

traditional rap video content and findings

• more controversial themes than community oriented themes

• male characters more likely to appear in community oriented vids

• female characters more likely to appear in controversial theme videos

• Black men associated with darker skin tones

• Black women associated with lighter skin tones and thin body ideal

• Black women are less thin in community oriented vids

Obscenity judgement standard (3 parts) and predictors for rap

1. Patently offensive: is it tolerable and acceptable?

2. Prurient appeal: is there a morbid interest in sex?

3. Artistic merit: is it protected because its art? (does it have political, literary, or scientific merit?)

Predictors for rap:

sexual explicitness of the content

gender of the participant

racist attitudes of the participant

Greater knowledge of certain aspects of Black cultural elements will lead to greater tolerance for rap music (here are the elements)

1. appreciation for playing the dozens + (yo momma jokes)

2. rebellious sexual attitudes +

3. disaffection towards mainstream society +

4. evaluation of rap’s stylistic features +

5. rap contributes to anti-social behaviors -

Uses and gratifications:

put media to use for a purpose; conscious use of the media

• we listen to music to shift our mood and connect with others

• listening to music while you work out

Mood management theory

unlike uses and gratifications, does not rely on the user being very conscious of their choices; not a deliberate process

• only addresses mood, mostly focuses on entertainment

• watching a comedy to alleviate bad mood

Social learning theory

we pick up behaviors we see in media

young children might mimick behavior of an artist

desensitization

after repeated media exposure, we might not have the same type of response to depictions after exposure

• songs that emphasize violence or sex might dull your reactions to later exposure to these things

Schema theory

when we view music videos, social schemas are primed (prepared for future use)

• seeing Post malone all bloody in the rockstar video might prime violence in your mind

Cultural Lens/ shield perspective

oppressed groups actively resist harmful media messages

higher cultural identification provides a way to resist harmful messages

The reflective explanation of media effects may explain impacts of media including music videos

• realism of depiction: the more realistic, the more powerful the effect or image in the kids’ conceptions

  • Most music videos are live action, not animation

  • music behaviors often depict real behaviors, rather than fantasy

Early music effects study findings

the more often participants viewed rap music videos, the higher their collective self-esteem (cultural shield/ uses and gratifications)

• collective self esteem: Black people thinking “im so proud of us”

• viewing more misogynistic videos predicted a greater acceptance of degradation of women (desensitization/schema theory)

• Black women with lower identification with being Black tended to be negatively influenced seeing thin Black women in music videos (uses and gratifications/cultural shield theory)

• Black women with a strong ethnic identification were not impacted by these depictions

Anti social themes

themes that lead to destruction, violence, abuse, and negative emotions

pro-social themes

themes that add to safety, growth, and empowerment of communities of color

selective exposure

people seek out info on a topic that fits their existing views

• following one sport more than another in media = selective exposure

Major finding:

selective exposure matters

people use online media platforms to locate media messages that are more positive (uses & gratifications)

factors that contribute to violence

• inequality of the poor

• easy access to guns

• drug and alcohol use

• gang involvement

• prejudice and discrimination

• exposure to abuse/violence

• the acceptance of violence within our culture (media)

conservative definition of violence

Intent to harm animate beings (the thing doing the violence must be capable of intent—could not be a tornado)

• purposefully wants to create injury

• credible threats against animate beings

• violent consequences against animate objects

• does not include psychological violence or accidents

Catharsis

under appropriate conditions, exposure to media violence can reduce aggressive behavior

• acting aggressively can reduce arousal and later aggression—you have to do it, it can’t be vicarious

disinhibition

under appropriate conditions, exposure to media violence can increase aggressive behavior

• viewing media violence reduces anxiety and inhibitions about aggression

• viewing violence primes other aggressive thoughts

Social learning (modeling)

aggressive responses and behaviors are learned primarily from viewing media violence

• viewing media violence teaches the viewer what is appropriate behavior

• young children will imitate what they see

Cultivation

our beliefs and attitudes are shaped by the media

• viewing media shapes our beliefs about the real world

• viewing violence impacts fear and beliefs about violence

intervention strategies for media violence

V chip

ratings (pg-13, R)

co-viewing

media literacy

erotica vs pornography

erotica: an equality between the partners (ex: lesbian feminist sexual media)

porn:value laden (typical subordination)

rape myth

women enjoy sexual domination/rape

Perspectives on porn: Moralist/traditionalist

Believes in absolute moral right and wrong

control of sexuality (especially women’s)

moralists might look for changes in people’s values

Perspectives on porn: liberalist

Believes in no absolute right or wrong

believes we should only prohibit behavior if it infringes on others

would care less about values and would look for direct effects (especially behavioral)

Perspectives on porn: Feminist

examination of equality in terms of power relationships

would look at how the powerful/elite use porn to indoctrinate (ex: dominant narratives)

Perspectives on porn: Evolutionary psychologist

examination of biological ties to porn use/ effects (ex: women aroused by text mainly and men mainly aroused by visuals)

why people use porn and outcomes of porn use related to biology & genetics

Incitement test

court distinguishes between speech advocating unpopular ideas and speech that actuall threatens people’s safety

• must be identifiable particular harm

• likelihood of harm occurrence must be relatively high

• most porn does not meet this standard

1970 pornography commission

said that porn was not harmful

(porn was less available—had to go to adult theaters)

behavioral effects short lived —a day or two

increased sex if already having relations

people not aroused by additional exposure —desensitization

Trigger hypothesis: porn causes increase in sex crimes

safety valve hypothesis: access to porn decreases sex crimes (basically catharsis)

more support for trigger hypothesis, but still weak support

1986 Pornography commission

said that there was a causal connection between exposure to sexually violent materials and antisocial acts of sexual violence

commission not in agreement over strenghtening laws or not

callousness

insensitive and cruel disregard for others.

mens sexual callousness towards women increases with exposure to porn (ex: less empathy for SA victims)

social identity/categorization theory

argues that the higher the importance of a particular category to an individual, the higher the ingroup favoritism they will exhibit.

social cognitive theory

we learn by watching others—children may learn from the media how to deal with and express emotions

empathy

the ability to understand and feel what someone else is feeling

emotional identification

empathy enhances enjoyment in media situations

cognitive empathy vs emotional empathy

cognitive: the ability to readily take the perspective of another

emotional: readily responding at a purely emotional level