AP Psych Unit 3 Vocab

neuron

• a nerve cell, the basic building blocks of the nervous system

cell body

• control center of neuron

• integrates inputs from all dendrites

• determines whether neuron should fire or not

dendrites

• a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

• input fibers that carry electrical signals into a neuron from connected cell

axon

• the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

• output fiber carries electrical signal from a neuron to a neighboring cell.

• neurons have one each

• larger than dendrites

• divide into branches at end called terminals

myelin sheath

• a layer of fatty tissue that encases the axons of some neurons

• enables greater transmission speed of neural impulses as impulses jump from node to node

• composed of glial cells (glove), support, nourish, protect neurons

synapse

• the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

• The tiny gap at this junction is called the _____tic gap or _____tic cleft.

glial cells (glia)

• cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

• also plays a role in learning, thinking, and memory

afferent neurons

• (sensory neurons)

• communicate sense information from body to brain

efferent neurons

• (motor neurons)

• communicates instructions from brain to body (muscles)

interneurons

• communicate messages between motor and sensory neurons (reflex arc)

• once info reaches brain, it takes message and sends it along

  • mallet test!

action potential

• a neural impulse

• brief charge that travels down the axon as it becomes depolarized

• travels down to terminal where it causes neuro transmitters that bind to specific receptor sites on receiving neurons to fire

refractory period

• in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired’ subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

• return to state of resting slightly negative charge (polarization)

• no amount of stimulation can cause the neurons to fire again in this stage.

• absolute refractory phase is followed by relative refractory phase in which neuron needs more stimulation to fire again

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synapse and bind to receptors sites on the next neuron like keys in a lock, influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

• inhibitory inhibits the nerve cell from firing

• excitatory excites the nerve cell into firing

  • causes neural firing to remain steady or even increase

agonist

• a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action or blocks reuptake

antagonist

• a molecule that inhibits neurotransmitter activity at the post synaptic terminal by binding to receptor sites

serotonin

• affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

• undersupply linked to depression. some drugs that raise these levels are used to treat depression

• prozac and ecstasy work by boosting its effects

dopamine

• influence movement, learning, attention, and emotion

• particularly in basal ganglia

• undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease

• oversupply linked to Tourrete's and schizophrenia

acetylcholine

• facilitates muscle movement

  • also enables muscle action, learning, and memory

• Alzheimer's associated with loss of it in neurons that connect with hippocampus

• nicotine is an agonist (mimics it), thats why cigarettes boost arousal and concentration

norepinephrine (noradrenalin)

• regulates alertness and arousal

• too much=mania, too little=depression

• puts the body on "red alert" during stressful or exciting situations

• coke and amphetamines boost levels

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

• a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

• undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

glutamate

• most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter

• plays significant role in learning and memory

• oversupply can overstimulate the brain producing migraines or seizures

endorphins

• "morphine within"

• natural opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure

• exercise linked to raising levels of this

• oversupply with opiate drugs can suppress the body’s natural supply of this

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

central nervous system (CNS)

• made up of two major components: brain and spine

• receives, processes, interprets, and stores incoming sensory info.

• sends out messages for muscles, glands, and internal organs.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• consists of nerves/tissue outside brain and spinal cord

• two categories: somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

somatic nervous system

(skeletal)

• consists of nerves that are connected to sensory receptors and to skeletal muscles that permit voluntary action

• muscles, joints, skin

• associated with all body movement

autonomic nervous system

• controls autonomic functions of the body

• controls fight or flight response

autonomic: sympathetic nervous system

• mobilizes body to respond to stress

• accelerates some functions (heart, b.p.) but conserves resources (digestion slows)

autonomic: parasympathetic nervous system

responsible for slowing down body after stress response

endocrine system

• system of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological functions in body

• controlled by hypothalamus

• pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, pineal, ovary/testis.

pituitary gland

• the endocrine system’s most influential gland

• under the influence of the hypothalamus

• regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

adrenal gland

• releases epinephrine and cortisol during the flight or fight response

thyroid gland

releases thyroxine which helps regulate metabolism, heart function, and body temperature

• overactive can lead to weight loss

  • Grave’s Disease

• underactive can lead to weight gain

pancreas

releases insulin which helps us use and store glucose for energy

pineal

releases melatonin to induce sleep

ovary/testis

release estrogen and testosterone respectively, both of which are involved in physical and sexual/reproductive development

brain stem

• the oldest part and central core of the brain

• begins where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull

• responsible for automatic survival functions

frontal lobes

• the most recently evolved part of the brain

• responsible for speaking, motor movements, short and long term planning, decision and judgement making

parietal lobes

• large area, 1/2 of brain

• goal oriented behavior, future planning

• believed responsible for abstract thought and emotional control

• contains Broca's area: controls muscles involved in speech

• thin,vertical strip at back of cortex, motor cortex: sends signals to our muscles; involuntary movement

occipital lobes

• located at the very back of brain, farthest from eyes

• however, one major function is to interpret messages from eyes into visual cortex.

• impulses from right half of each retina are processed in the visual cortex of the left side, and vice-versa.

temporal lobes

• processes sound sensed by ears

• sound waves processed, turned into neural impulses and interpreted in auditory cortex.

motor cortex

• an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

medulla

the base of the brainstem

• controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstorm into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

thalamus

the brain’s sensory control center

• located on top of the brainstem

• directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex

• transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

cerebellum

• the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstorm

• functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

• neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres

• associated with emotions and drives

amygdala (limbic system)

• two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system

• linked to emotion

hypothalamus (limbic system)

• directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp)

• helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

• linked to emotion and reward

hippocampus (limbic system)

• a neural center located in the limbic system

• helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events

cerebral cortex

• the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemisphere

• the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

corpus callosum

• the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

pons

• helps coordinate movement and control sleep

hormones

• chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

lesion

• tissue destruction

• a brain _____ is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG (electroencephalogram)

• an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface

• these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

• brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

CT (computed tomography) scan, (AKA CAT scan)

• a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

• a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

• a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue

• shows brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI)

• a technique for revealing bloodflow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans

• shows brain function as well as structure

neural plasticity

• brain undergoes billions of neural changes throughout the life span

  • both in functionality and structure

• neurons in the brain adapt similarly to muscles in the body

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously

• generally used to process well-learned info or to solve easy problems

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a problem at a time

• generally used to process new info or to solve difficult problems

monozygotic (identical) twins

develops from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

dizygotic (fraternal) twins

develops from separate fertilized eggs and genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters but share a prenatal environment

epigenetics

• “above” or “in addition to” genetics

• the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change