Psych 1X03 Problem Solving

Deductive Reasoning

Using a general theory to reach a specific conclusion (theory -> facts)

Inductive Reasoning

Using specific facts to make generate a conclusion about a general theory (facts -> theory)

Insight Problem

A problem designed to get you to "think outside the box"

Functional Fixedness

The difficulty to see alternative uses for a common object

What 2 traits makes an intelligence test legitimate?

Reliability and Validity

What does it mean for a test to be reliable?

The results of the test produce the same result every time

Test-Retest

A method used to measure the reliability of a test by repeatedly taking a test and seeing whether the result is the same

interrater reliability

Measures the agreeability of 2 statements from 2 separate witnesses

What does it mean for a test to be valid?

A valid test accurately measures the trait that is intended to be measured

Predictive validity

The extent to which a test can be used to predict a future score

What did Francis Galton theorize?

Galton thought that a faster reaction time equated to a high intelligence

What is the most commonly used IQ test and what does it measure?

Weschler's Scales of Intelligence measures the intelligence quotient

How are scores measured and what is the shape of the graph?

The graph takes on the shape of a bell curve and is standardized relative to the population

What is the average of the Weschler's Scales of Intelligence test? Does it ever change?

100, and no

What did theory did Gardner propose?

Multiple Intelligence Theory

According to Gardner, what are the 8 types of intelligence?

1. Verbal

2. Mathematical

3. Musical

4. Spatial

5. Kinesthetic

6. Interpersonal

7. Intrapersonal

8. Naturalistic

Is the learning style theory accurate?

No, there is no data to back it up

what does "g" represent?

A general measure of intelligence

What is the correlation between IQ's of identical twins?

+0.8 r-value

What is the correlation between IQ's for fraternal twins?

+0.6 r-value

What is the r-value for IQ and identical twins who live in different homes? What does this tell us in the "nature vs. nurture" debate?

+0.73. This shows us that both genetics and environment play a role in a child's intelligence

Schema

A conceptual framework that organizes knowledge and helps us interpret new information

What does it mean to assimilate information into a schema?

Adding new information into a pre-existing schema (the schema expands)

What does it mean to accomodate information?

The creation of a new schema when presented with information that does not fit into an existing schema.

What are Piaget's four stages of cognitive development? Can stages be skipped?

No, stages can't be skipped. The 4 stages are: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational

What ages is the sensorimotor stage associated with? What are the key characteristics?

Children ages 0-2 CAN:

- act with intention

- move around the environment

-understand object permanence

What ages is the pre-operational stage associated with? What are the key characteristics?

Children ages 2-7 CANNOT UNDERSTAND:

- egocentrism (can't understand different perspectives)

- seriation (logically order a series of objects)

- reversible relationships (eg. sister and brother)

- conservation (eg. volume conservation)

What ages is the concrete operational stage associated with? What are the key characteristics?

Children ages 7-12 CANNOT:

- think abstractly, but they do have concrete schemas

What ages is the formal operational stage associated with? What are the key characteristics?

Children ages 12+ CAN:

- think abstractly

- reason

What are some criticisms regarding Piaget's theory?

Decalage: the theory that skills may develop out of order or at the same time for an individual
Reliance on language abilities

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek new evidence that confirms our preconceived hypothesis

What is a heuristic?

A mental shortcut used to make our thinking more efficient

Availability Heuristic

Our tendency to make decisions based on info that is most readily available to us (eg. based on how many examples come to mind)

Representativeness heuristic

Our tendency to assume that what we are seeing is representative of a larger category we have in mind

What do we rely on when using the availability heuristic?

How easily examples come to mind

What do we rely on when using the representativeness heuristic?

The resemblance between the event and other events in the category

operational device

a clearly defined description of a construct so that the construct can be observed and measured

intelligence

the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, to remember important information, and to cope with the demands of daily living

what is analytic intelligence?

components of intelligence used when we analyze, evaluate, judge, compare or contrast

when might we apply analytic intelligence?

when we complete a math problem or write a comparative essay

creative intelligence

using existing knowledge to find new solutions

practical intelligence

individual's ability to apply their abilities to the sorts of problems that face them in every-day life

arch of knowledge

diagram that shows how deductive and inductive reasoning work together to guide the scientific method

what is a well-defined problem?

a problem where the starting position, allowable rules and end goals are clearly stated

what is an ill-defined problem?

a problem in which the starting position, allowable rules, and end goal are not clearly stated

reliability

the degree to which a test produces consistent results

validity

the degree to which a test measures the construct it intends to measure

what was the difference between the correlation of IQ in adoptees and their biological parents vs. adoptees and their adoptive parents

the correlation was higher for adoptees and their biological parents (0.42), and lower for adoptees and their adoptive parents (0.1)

why are adoption studies an accurate determination of whether genes or environment play a bigger role in IQ?

adoption agencies try to match children to parents based on many factors, so oftentimes their adoptive parents are similar to their biological parents

what is the Flynn Effect?

the observation that raw IQ scores have raises approximately 3 points every decade since 1932

what scores are the Flynn Effect most pronounced for?

the lowest IQ scores

what factors may contribute to IQ, especially lower IQ scores, rising over the years?

better nutrition and access to healthcare for disadvantaged groups

hypothetical construct

An explanatory variable which is not directly observable or measurable (such as intelligence)

Monty-Hall problem

A game where you're more likely to win by changing your answer after finding out that your initial choice was wrong

Bounded rationality

cognitive limitations prevent humans from being fully rational

Anchoring

the bias to be affected by an initial anchor, even if it is arbitrary

Framing

the bias to be systematically affected by the way in which information is presented