GENED 1052 - Race in a Polarized America Midterm

What is the significance of the Declaration of Independence in abolitionist / civil rights movements?

Activists used the “All men are created equal” language of the document to argue slavery violates American ideals

Is the Constitution a pro-slavery or anti-slavery document? Explain.

Pro-slavery:

Three Fifths Compromise counted enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for representation, giving slave states more power.

Fugitive slave clause required enslaved people to be returned to their owner even if they reached a free state.

A lot of power on issues like slavery was given to individual states

What significant points does Douglass make in his 4th of July speech?

Douglass compares American values like liberty and freedom to the reality of slavery. He highlights that the independence Americans celebrate is far from the reality of a black man. He also points out how Americans use Christianity to excuse slavery and that the legal system is designed to punish Black people more harshly. Douglass’ belief is that the Constitution and Declaration of Independence are good documents that need fair interpretation.

What did the 14th Amendment do?

It promised birthright citizenship and equal protection under the law in 1868. However, judicial rulings later drained its radical quality and as Jim Crow laws spread across the South, it became a piece of paper that no one enforced.

What form of racial domination does Orlando Patterson argue? Evaluate.

Patterson argues that racial domination is homeostatic. This means race is a social construct but hierarchy is embedded in all American structures. Systems of racial inequality adapt to survive new social conditions. For example, when slavery was abolished, other forms of discrimination like Jim Crow laws or mass incarceration rose.

How does Obama argue that Black and White Americans share a collective national identity?

In his speech, Obama acknowledges Black anger over oppression and White resentment over perceived loss. He argues America can move beyond racial division by living up to its founding ideals. Obama believes in shared destiny where progress depends on empathy, cooperation, and recognizing mutual responsibility.

What is manifest destiny?

The belief that the US was destined by God to expand westward. Used to justify colonization.

When did the United States start seeing an influx of immigrants from Asia and Latin America? Why?

After the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 ended the race-based quotas created by the INA of 1924, Asian and Latino immigrants were able to enter the US legally.

What nativist movement was heavily against immigration in the 19th century?

The Know Nothing (American) Party was anti-immigration. They wanted to restrict their rights to vote and proposed naturalization after 21 years instead of 3.

What are eugenics?

Theory that people with the “right” characteristics should have more children. Used as evidence for states’ rights to sterilize “feebleminded” (Buck v Bell).

What was Francis Walker’s main argument regarding immigration?

Walker acknowledges America is a land of immigrants but argues its openness has gone too far. He believes earlier immigrants are “good” and helped build the nation, but newer immigrants are “unassimilable” and “culturally incompatible”. He framed this argument as protecting American civilization.

What is birthright citizenship? How does the US compare to other countries?

It means children born in the US are citizens, regardless of the immigration status of their parents. The US is more lenient compared to other countries, as majority of European, Asian, and African countries do not recognize it.

Compare Biden’s stance on immigration to Trump’s.

Biden looked to streamline work visas for DACA recipients, expand protections for undocumented spouses, and make it easier for Dreamers / long term undocumented immigrants to adjust their status. Trump focuses on mass deportation, expansion of detention, and limitation of legal pathways.

What is polygenesis?

Argues human races are different species.

What is Blumenbach’s theory of race?

He classified humanity into 5 races based on skull structure, skin color, etc

What is the one drop of blood rule vs blood quantum?

The one drop of blood rule is a complicated way of classification on the census based on how much “black blood” you have. The blood quantum is an equally complicated way of classification to determine American Indian ancestry.

Why has the US Census changed over time? Give an example.

The way we see race has changed. For example, “Mexican” was once a separate racial category. However, Mexicans protested that they should be considered white and it was removed.

What is linked fate?

The degree to which members believe their own self interests are linked to the interests of their race

What is culturalism? How does Foner argue Europe is different from the United States?

It is when culture/religion becomes treated as if it were a race. Foner argues that in Europe, Islam is excluded and functions as a race in the US. The US has historically treated Islam similarly, especially after 9/11.

What are the key components of the psychological perspective on racism?

Humans naturally divide the world and have in-group favoritism, known as in-group identification.

People also have a need to believe the world is just and are motivated to act as if it is, known as system justification. If they see an injustice, they’ll compensate if they can and place blame on the victim if they can’t.

Du Bois’ idea of double consciousness expresses the view of seeing yourself through the eyes of others in a racist society.

What are the key components of the government/institutional perspective on racism?

Racism is not just individual prejudice, but systemic and institutional, shaping politics while being embedded in policies. This is known as the critical race theory, designed to maintain white supremacy.

Specific examples include

• incarceration - crack cocaine carried harsher sentences than powder cocaine)

• zoning - laws used to segregate neighborhoods by race which limits access to good housing and resources)

• education - where wealthy neighborhoods get better schools as local property taxes fund them)

• electoral college - gives disproportionate power to smaller states and underrepresents minority voters in larger urban states)

• voting restrictions - poll taxes, impossible literacy tests, intimidation/violence, grandfather clauses, naturalization laws (“free white persons”)

• gerrymandering - changing electoral districts to favor a certain party (typically racially motivated as Black people are more likely to vote democratic)

What is the median voter theorem?

Political candidates move toward the preferences of the middle voter to win elections

Explain bimodal distribution and the result of it.

Most voters identify themselves with the left or the right, with few in the middle. Politicians move to one extreme, rallying their base and creating wedge issues.

What is a cross-cutting cleavage?

It is when divisions in society overlap, reducing polarization. For example, when a poor Black worker and a poor white worker share economic interests they are divided by race but united by class.

What is affective polarization? What are some causes and consequences?

It is when people’s feelings toward political opponents become more negative, like distrust or hatred. It is caused by partisan media, social media, and politicians that model hostility (like Trump saying he hates his opponents). This makes it harder to compromise, resulting in dehumanization and people caring more about their side winning than solving problems.

What is ideological polarization? What are some causes and consequences?

It is when political parties move further apart on issues and become less willing to compromise. It is caused by politicians using wedge issues to rally support, social media amplifying extreme voices, partisanship with voters aligning all their beliefs with their party, and regionalism where urban areas lean liberal and rural areas lean conservative. This causes less compromise, radicalization, and larger social divides.

Does the Constitution create polarization? How?

Yes. It designed a system based on separation of powers, checks and balances, and federalism which encourages competition and conflict between branches, levels of government, and parties. For example, smaller states are given more representation in the electoral college than they should have.

How does the pride paradox relate to modern politics, as described by Hochschild?

Trump makes a provoking statement, such as “When Mexico brings its people, they’re bringing drugs, crime, and rapists”. People and the media shame Trump for that statement. Trump poses as a victim of this shaming and claims it can happen to the people to. With this new support, Trump is able to roar back at these shamers.

What are possible benefits and drawbacks of race being intertwined with polarization?

A main drawback is racism. Some possible benefits can include the rise in awareness of issues and built unity among marginalized groups.

How have American demographics changed in the last 50 years?

It has become much more racially diverse due to factors like immigration, birthrates, and intermarriage.

What is the dependency ratio?

It measures how many young and elderly people depend on working age adults for support. The lower the better for funding social policies for the youth and elderly. A clear solution is immigration, but radicalized politics resists it.

Is demography destiny?

This statement assumes that a growingly diverse America will become more politically progressive. Demography is not destiny as growing populations haven’t really translated into reform and how people see themselves is more important than demographic change which isn’t fixed. For example, Mexican Americans assimilating and moving into “White” or “Hispanic” categories. Demographic change can deepen polarization, such as white resentment over the great replacement theory.

What is pronatalism and why has it emerged now?

It encourages people to have more children. It has emerged now due to low birth rates, aging population, resistance to immigration, and the great replacement theory. 

What is the racial contract and its components? What are its critiques?

Whites ensure freedom and power through domination of nonwhites. Genocide, slavery, and colonization are evidence this contract exists. Whites justify it, seeing it as natural/inevitable and all whites are beneficiaries even if not signatories. There is no way out and denial of it only shows how deeply it is built into society. There’s no real option to undo racial structure and white people still hold most of the power.

What is the social contract? What is the sexual contract?

The social contract is how people join together and agree to give up some individual freedom for protection and order. A government’s power is only legitimate if it’s based on the actual/implied consent of the governed.

The sexual contract is how men ensure freedom and power through access to women’s bodies and labor. This is framed as natural and appropriate, giving an illusion of equality.

Compare Jardina’s White Identity Politics to Mills’ Racial Contract.

Jardina argues individual attitudes toward racial identity, a social identity theory about belonging and perceived threat, variation among whites, and that the in-group is independent of the out-group.

Mills argues a structural analysis of systems and powers, a materialist framework of economic and political domination, that all whites are beneficiaries, and that the in-group creates and requires the out-group.

What is power threat hypothesis?

It is when a minority group grows in size/influence, and members of the dominant group feel their economic, political, or social power is threatened.

What are stocks, flows, and rank?

The number of minority group members in an area, how fast that group is growing or moving in, and the relative position of groups.

What are actual threats compared to perceived threats?

Actual threats are real competition measured through data like unemployment, political seats, and income inequality. Perceived threats are based on beliefs, fears, and stereotypes, such as whites overestimating crime rates or immigrant populations.

What is contact hypothesis? What conditions are needed for it to hold?

It is the idea that direct contact between groups can reduce prejudice. It only works if members interact as equals, the group is working toward a common goal that everyone benefits from, success depends on working together rather than outperforming, and there is support from authority and cultural norms.

What US agency was racial integration achieved most thoroughly in? Why?

The military. Soldiers have to rely on other soldiers for survival and to achieve the same goal, creating equal status. Their hierarchical structure does not care about race.

What is a difference in Black and White post-incarceration life?

Former White inmates are more likely to get second chances and job opportunities than former Black or Latino inmates.

What is outward blame compared to inward blame?

An example of outward blame is whites blaming minorities for social change. An example of inward blame is minorities blaming themselves for inequalities and failures, not recognizing structural racism. 

What is relational assimilation?

It is the view that how one group is included depends on how others are perceived and treated.

What is Jimenez’s idea of civic Americanness?

It is the idea of national identity, like being American, being based on shared participation, like working or voting.

What is the paradox of the American dream? (according to Hochschild)

It motivates people to strive and pursue opportunity, but it also blames individuals for structural failures like racism, poverty, and inequality

What is the difference between Black perception of the American dream by class?

Middle class Black Americans embrace the American dream while recognizing racism limits how far they can go. Lower class Black Americans may inspire to achieve the dream but see it as unrealistic due to racism and economic inequality

How does intergenerational mobility differ by race and why? Propose a solution. 

Whites are much more likely to move up while Blacks and Native Americans are much more likely to move down. This is in part due to residential segregation and unequal neighborhoods after historical elements like housing discrimination and redlining. A solution would be to invest in underfunded neighborhoods.

What is intersectionality? Give an example.

It is the overlapping of multiple identities creating unique forms of discrimination. An example is a Muslim woman being asked to remove her hijab at an airport.

How does intersectionality affect feminist and anti-racist movements?

Feminist movements center the experiences of women to those of a white woman. Anti-racist movements center the experiences of Black people to those of a Black man.