Soci 1000 UPenn Midterm

sociology

the study of society and its structural and systemic forces which affect individual lives as well as groups

society

a group of a people who live in a defined territory, share social structures, and interact with each other; can be big or small

the sociological imagination

idea of C. Right Mills; individuals are linked with the social forces that impact our lives, which must be understood in different contexts

micro perspective

the focus on direct relationships between people

macro perspective

the focus on major social forces that shapes lives; ex: the economy

Durkheim's theory of suicide

a study looking to find "social facts" related to suicide; discovered that weak social bonds may be an explanation

theory

statement of how and why specific facts are related; the lens that shapes how we see the social world

conflict theory

society is made up of various groups in constant struggle over scarce resources (ex: money, power), which causes inequality

communism

an economic and social system based on communal ownership of wealth and resources

false consciousness

an ideological superstructure that preserves capitalism and blinds the proletariat from understanding their place in society

class consciousness

the understanding of one's position in the class system and the awareness to unite and change social and economic conditions

double consciousness

idea from conflict theorist W.E.B. Du Bois; black people live in both a "black" and "white" world, which leads to tension and cuts them off from the fruits of capitalism

functionalism

theoretical perspective that sees society as a system of interrelated parts, where each social system plays a role in how society functions; unstable society means a part is not working properly

social Darwinism

"survival of the fittest"; the strongest and most capable survive and prosper which strengthens society; those at the bottom are there because they are not as competent of capable; created by Herbert Spencer

mechanical solidarity

solidarity that comes from living a similar way of life

organic solidarity

solidarity based around having different people and groups do different things, so everyone depends on each other

manifest functions

the intended consequences of a pattern of behaviour or a social event

latent functions

the unintended consequences of a pattern of behaviour or a social event

symbolic interactionism

a micro perspective that focuses on everyday interactions between people that creates the social world

feminist theory

idea that the patriarchy gives more power to men and they shape society to suit their interests and reinforce their position

objectivity

conducting research without allowing personal biases and prejudices to influence findings

verstehen

understanding the meaning of action from the actor's point of view

hypothesis

a statement about how variables relate; based on theory and predicts how something works

variables

measurable traits or characteristics that can be dependent or independent

causal relationship

when one variable causes a consequence or change in others

correlation

when a change in one variable is accompanied by another

population

a group the researcher wants to get information about

sample

subset of the population that data is drawn from

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

quantitative research

research based on numbers and statistics

qualitative research

research based on words, pictures, interviews, non-number data

survey

investigation of the opinions or behaviours of a group of people by asking questions; allows one to collect lots of data at a low cost but lacks elaboration and is open to lies

interview

asking a respondent questions in person; can be structured or semi-structured

participant observation

study where the researcher poses as a person normally in an environment (with informed consent)

ethnography

aims to understand a particular group by participating in the group's activities over an extended period of time

experiment

study where researchers control variables in order to test causes and effects

culture

the symbols, values, norms, and material objects that societies create and that together constitute a way of life

symbols

things that stand for or represent something else; carry meaning for those who use them

language

a system of spoken or written symbols used to convey meaning and communicate

gestures

symbols we make with our bodies

values

cultural standards by which we determine good and bad as well as right and wrong

norms

culturally defined rules for appropriate social behaviour

sanctions

rewards or punishments for following or not following norms; can be formal or informal

folkways

informal norms that are not strictly enforced

mores

norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance; represent society's most important values

laws

formal norms that are enforced through social institutions

subculture

cultural subsets with distinct, individual elements

counterculture

a subculture with values and norms that oppose that of the dominant culture's

ethnocentrism

using one's own culture to judge another culture

cultural relativism

judging a culture by its own standards rather than by comparing it to one's own

socialization

the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society

primary socialization

occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity

secondary socialization

socialization outside the family after childhood; usually observed in life-changing events (ex: getting a job, getting married)

nature theory

states that the genes we get from our parents at conception are the primary causes of human behaviors

nurture theory

the view that intelligence is not inherited but is largely a product of environment

blank state hypothesis

idea that we are born as empty vessels and who we are is determined by social experiences and socialization

dramaturgy

approach that depicts human interaction as theatrical performances

character

the image we present to others; dramaturgical approach

performer

the person playing "characters" in different situations

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, develops in response to denied gratification of the id

super ego

parental voice dictating acceptable behaviour; the "conscience"

oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

castration anxiety

in psychoanalysis, the fear in young boys that they will be mutilated genitally by their father because of their lust for their mother

penis envy

according to Freud, the female desire to have a penis - a condition that usually results in their attraction to males.

social stratification

a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy based on different degrees of wealth, power, and prestige

ideology

a set of cultural beliefs that justifies various social arrangements

social mobility

movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another

rentiers

the wealthy members of a society, as identified by Weber, who come from a privileged class of "old money"

entrepreneurs

owners of businesses who must work to acquire and maintain wealth

petite bourgeoisie

lower middle class (shopkeepers and clerical staff etc.); small business owners

bureaucrats

managers of business and government agencies;do not own anything but have power in the social system

craftspeople

people who make goods by hand; skilled labourers

semi-skilled manual workers

the workers who have some training and may work in factories but are not highly skilled

unskilled workers

the lowest class, consisting of people who frequently perform manual labor jobs that require no specialized training

upper class

a term for the economic elite; small number of people who hold significant wealth; "old money" and "the new rich"

upper middle class

social class that consists of high income members of society who are well educated but do not belong to the elite membership of the super wealthy

middle class

a social class made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy farmers

working class

people with generally lower education who work manual labour jobs and low skill work; often hourly wage labour

lower class

a social class composed of those who work part time or not at all and whose household income is typically low; living in poverty and struggling to meet costs of living

underclass

homeless people and people living in substandard

horizontal mobility

the movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank

vertical mobility

the movement of an individual from one social position to another of a different rank

intragenerational mobility

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career

intergenerational mobility

the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next

precarious labour

temporary contract-based work that replaces full-time permanent positions; less benefits

the working poor

people who work but whose earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

first world

the largely democratic and free-market states of the United States and Western Europe

second world

the communist and state-planned countries of the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China (Cold War)

third world

term applied to a group of "developing" or "underdeveloped" countries who professed nonalignment during the Cold War.

global north/global south

a way of representing relationships of inequality in wealth and power on a global scale that separates the earth into two parts

gross national income

ranks how much income a country has per person

human development index

indicator of level of development for each country, constructed by United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and life expectancy

absolute poverty

a lack of resources that is life-threatening

relative poverty

the lack of resources of some people in relation to those who have more

wallerstein's world systems model

divides the world's countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery based on development level

neocolonialism

also called economic imperialism, this is the domination of newly independent countries by foreign business interests that causes colonial-style economies to continue

demography

the scientific study of population characteristics

migration

a movement from one country or region to another