Memory Systems, Types, Errors and forgetting (Exam 2)

How are memories built and retrieved? -

Memories are built and retrieved through interdependent associative connections, where related ideas and experiences activate each other.

How do top-down and bottom-up processes shape memory? -

Top-down schemas influence how information is interpreted and organized, while bottom-up perceptions provide sensory details; both interact during encoding and retrieval.

What is short-term (working) memory? -

Temporarily holds and manipulates information for immediate use

What is long-term memory? 

The relatively permanent store of information, with a potentially unlimited capacity and duration.

What is explicit memory?

Conscious memory of facts and experiences; includes episodic and semantic memory.

What is episodic memory?

Memory for personal experiences or events tied to specific times and places.

What is semantic memory?

Memory for general knowledge and facts not linked to personal experience.

retrieval

process of reconstruction

What is a memory network?

A system of interconnected nodes representing concepts or experiences linked by associative connections.

What are nodes in memory theory?

Units in a network that represent specific concepts, words, or ideas stored in memory.

What is spreading activation?

The process by which activating one memory node triggers activation of related nodes, making them easier to recall.

What is encoding?

The process of transforming sensory input into a memory trace that can be stored and later retrieved.

What is storage

the process of retaining encoded information in memory over time.

What is context reinstatement?

Re-creating the original learning environment or mental state during recall to improve retrieval accuracy.

What is direct memory testing?

Testing that explicitly asks participants to recall or recognize previously learned information, such as recall or recognition tests.

What is recall?

Retrieving information from memory without external cues (for example, essay questions or free recall).

What is familiarity? 

A sense that an item or event has been experienced before, without recalling specific contextual details.

what is source memory

Remembering the origin or context of information, such as where or from whom you learned it.

What is chunking in memory?

Organizing small bits of information into larger, meaningful units to expand working-memory capacity.

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Repeating information over and over to keep it active in working memory; a shallow form of processing.

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Linking new information to existing knowledge or meaning; a deeper form of processing that promotes long-term storage.

What is shallow processing?

Encoding information based on surface features, such as appearance or sound, resulting in weaker retention.

What is deep processing? 

Encoding information based on meaning and semantic relationships, leading to stronger long-term memory

What is implicit memory?

Unconscious memory of skills, habits, and priming effects, such as riding a bike.

What are flashbulb memories?

Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally charged, surprising events; often feel accurate but can still distort over time.

What is distortion in memory?

When memories change or become reconstructed over time due to inference, bias, or schema effects.

What is intrusion in memory?

When irrelevant or unwanted information enters recall and contaminates true memories.

What is misinformation?

When exposure to misleading information after an event alters a person's memory of that event.

How do schemas influence memory? 

Schemas provide structure and expectations that help organize information but can also fill gaps and create distortions.

What is the role of general encoding in memory?

People tend to encode the general meaning (gist) of experiences more reliably than specific details, which leads to structured recall but possible inaccuracies.

What is the forgetting curve?

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

What is spaced repetition (spaced retrieval)?

Reviewing information at increasing intervals to strengthen memory and counter the forgetting curve.

What is motivated forgetting?

Forgetting that occurs through conscious suppression or unconscious repression of unpleasant memories

What is retrieval failure?

When information is stored in memory but cannot be accessed without the right cues.

What is storage decay?

Gradual fading of unused or unrehearsed memories over time.

How does emotion influence memory?

Emotion enhances memory for central features but can reduce accuracy for peripheral details and increase susceptibility to distortion.

What does the encoding specificity principle state?

Retrieval is most effective when the cues present at recall match those present during encoding.

What study techniques best strengthen memory? 

Spaced retrieval practice, elaborative rehearsal, context reinstatement, and deep semantic processing