Human Development Section 1

Human Development

systematic changes and continuities from conception through death

Domains of Development

physical, cognitive, and psychosocial areas of change

Physical Development

changes in body, brain, motor skills, and biological processes

Cognitive Development

changes in thinking, memory, language, and problem‑solving

Psychosocial Development

changes in emotions, personality, identity, and relationships

Nature vs. Nurture

interaction between genetics and environment in shaping development

Stability vs. Change

question of which traits remain consistent and which evolve

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

gradual development vs. stage‑like development

Periods of Development

prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, emerging adulthood, adulthood, late adulthood

Cross‑Sectional Design

research comparing different age groups at one time

Longitudinal Design

research following the same individuals over time

Sequential Design

combination of cross‑sectional and longitudinal methods

Naturalistic Observation

observing behavior in real‑world settings

Structured Observation

observing behavior in controlled settings

Experiment

research manipulating variables to determine cause and effect

Self‑Report

participants describe their own thoughts or behaviors

Ethics in Research

informed consent, assent, protection from harm, confidentiality, withdrawal rights

Theory

functional framework that explains, predicts, and organizes developmental knowledge

Psychoanalytic Theory

development driven by unconscious motives and early experiences

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

personality shaped by conflicts at oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

8 stages of social crises across the lifespan

Behaviorism

learning through reinforcement, punishment, and conditioning

Classical Conditioning

learning through association between stimuli

Operant Conditioning

learning through consequences of behavior

Social Learning Theory

learning through modeling, imitation, and observation

Reciprocal Determinism

interaction between behavior, environment, and personal factors

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

children actively construct knowledge through developmental stages

Sensorimotor Stage

learning through senses and actions (0–2 years)

Preoperational Stage

symbolic thinking and egocentrism (2–7 years)

Concrete Operational Stage

logical thinking about concrete events (7–11 years)

Formal Operational Stage

abstract and hypothetical reasoning (12+)

Information Processing Theory

mind as a system that processes, stores, and retrieves information

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

learning through social interaction and cultural tools

Zone of Proximal Development

range between independent ability and assisted ability

Scaffolding

temporary support provided to help a learner master a task

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

development influenced by nested environmental systems

Microsystem

immediate environment (family, school, peers)

Mesosystem

interactions between microsystems

Exosystem

indirect environmental influences

Macrosystem

cultural values, laws, societal norms

Chronosystem

changes over time and historical context

Primary Groups

small, intimate groups with strong emotional bonds (family, close friends)

Secondary Groups

larger, goal‑oriented groups (classrooms, workplaces)

Reference Groups

groups used for comparison that influence identity and self‑esteem

Children as Mini‑Adults

historical view treating children like small adults with adult roles

Children as Innocent

perspective emphasizing protection and vulnerability

Children as Economic Contributors

view of children as part of the labor force

Children as Learners

modern view emphasizing education and cognitive development

Children as Rights‑Holders

contemporary view recognizing autonomy, protection, and participation rights

Multidimensional Development

development involves multiple interacting domains

Contextual Development

development shaped by culture, SES, family, and historical era

Plasticity

capacity for change throughout life

Lifelong Development

development continues from birth to death

Eclectic Approach

using multiple theories to understand development