HDFS 229 - Exam 1

Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

• Biopsychosocial Approach

• Lifespan Perspective

• Bio-Ecological Systems Model

• Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Biopsychosocial Approach

• Development is a combination of biological, psychological, and social processes

• We are shaped by all 3, and they overlap and intersect throughout our lives

• A holistic approach – each aspect is important to consider

The Lifespan Perspective

Important aspects:

• Development is a lifelong process

• Development is multi-directional

• Plasticity

• Contextualism

• Development is multi-dimensional

Reciprocal influence

Development is an ongoing interaction between a changing individual in a changing environment

Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Systems Model

• Microsystem

• Mesosystem

• Exosystem

• Macrosystem

Microsystem

People and contexts that interact directly with the adolescent

• Ex: Parents, siblings, neighbors, teachers, peers, friends

Mesosystem

Interactions and relationships between microsystems

• Ex: Parent/teacher conferences, sibling relationships to friends, friend’s relationship to school

Exosystem

A setting that affects the adolescent indirectly through the microsystem

• Ex: Parent’s workplace, School system, hospitals, community, laws

Macrosystem

• Ex: Culture, customs, value systems, gender norms

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Knowledge and values are learned through interactions with caregivers

  • Adults and older children communicate and scaffold infants and younger children

“Zone of Proximal Development”

Challenging new skills can only be learned with assistance when someone is ready

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

• Psychosocial theory suggests that people face particular psychological tasks called a “crisis”

• Crises align with particular stages of development (infancy, toddlerhood, etc…)

• Resolving a crisis comes from interactions with the social environment

Psychosocial stages of childhood (Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory)

• Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust (birth to 18 mos)

• Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (until roughly 3 years)

• Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3-6)

• Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (up to age 11)

Complete genetic code includes:

• 23 pairs of chromosomes

• Biological sex determined by pair 23 (X & Y chromosomes)

Genotype

Makeup of specific genes within the DNA

• some genes are dominant or recessive

Phenotype

expression of the genes in physical or psychological traits

• Ex: eye color

Shared environment

those aspects of environment two people have in common (same family, household, etc..)

Non-shared environment

Aspects of nurturing environment that are unique to individuals

Twin studies

• Identical twins have essentially identical genomes while fraternal twins do not

Evocative correlations

inherited trait influences the environment’s response

• Ex: Aggression and adult response

Niche-picking

selecting into environments based on heritable traits

• Ex: choosing friends, becoming a musician

Epigenetics

Study of how environmental factors influence the expression of genes

Polygenic

Influenced by multiple genes

“Genetics” was coined by who and when?

• William Bateson

• 1905

Stages of Development

• Prenatal

• Infancy

• Early childhood

• Middle childhood

• Adolescence

When is the prenatal stage of development?

Conception → birth

When is the infancy stage of development?

birth → 2 years

When is the early childhood stage of development?

2 years → 6 years

When is the middle childhood stage of development?

6 years → 11 years

When is the adolescence stage of development?

12 years → 18 years

Nature

• emphasizes the influence of heredity or biologically based development

• (biology, genetics, heredity)

Nurture

• emphasizes the influence of forces in the environment

• (social forces, experiences, home and neighborhood)

Developmental Stability

The degree to which people remain the same over time relative to other people

Continuous development

gradual improvement and change over time

Discontinuous development

stepwise change, big shifts and different stages

Behaviorism

Behavioral differences are learned as a result of conditioning, reinforcements, punishment

Social Learning

Behaviors are learned through observing others and modeling from adults/peers

Naturalistic observation

Out in the field, school, home (natural environment)

• Involves no manipulation

Structured observation

Occurs in a laboratory or controlled environment

• Researcher controls environment, evokes behavior

Function MRI (fMRI)

detects increases in blood flow and oxygen in the brain over time

EEG (electroencephalogram)

A measure of brain activity

Skin conductance

electrical signals as a result of active sweat glands (due to stress or fear)

Cortisol test

measures the level of stress hormone in blood, saliva, or urine

Correlation Research

- Two variables (X and Y)

- Range from -1 to 1

- Number = strength; sign = direction

- Correlation is NOT CAUSATION

Developmental Research

1. Cross-sectional

2. Longitudinal

Cross-sectional

comparing several different groups at one time point

Longitudinal

measuring the same group of people at multiple time points

What does experimental research seek to establish?

a causal link between variables

Oogenesis

• The process of an oocyte (female germ cell) maturing into an ovum

  • Only an ovum is capable of fertilization

Ovulation

Release of ovum into fallopian tube from ovary

How long does a mature ovum survive after release and what is this called?

• 12-24 hours

• Fertilization window

Male germ cell

• Called sperm

• Created through spermatogenesis

Phases of Prenatal Development

1. Zygote or Germinal phase

2. Embryonic phase

3. Fetal phase

Zygote or Germinal phase

• Moment of conception

• Conception → 2 weeks of pregnancy

Two primary layers of Blastocyst

• Trophoblast

• Embryoblast

Blastocele

Hollow cavity distinguishing the trophoblast and embryoblast layers

How many cells does a blastocyst have?

200-300 cells

Ectopic pregnancy

• Failure to reach uterus

  • Implantation in fallopian tube

Embryonic phase

• 2 weeks → 8 weeks of pregnancy

• Successful implantation and cell specialization

• Body structures/organs begin to form

  • Such as brain and heart

• Highest sensitivity to developmental errors and miscarriage

Fetal phase

• 8 weeks → birth

Age of viability

22-24 weeks gestation

Full term pregnancy

37-40 weeks

First trimester

0-13 weeks

Second trimester

14-27 weeks

Third trimester

28 weeks to full term (37 weeks)

Amniotic sac

• Protective sac around the growing embryo and fetus

  • Forms 12 days after conception (after implantation)

• Filled with amniotic fluid which guards against injury and infection

• Grows in size with baby

• Breaking open is a sign of labor

Placenta & Umbilical Cord

• Filter and nourish

• Provide oxygen through maternal vessels connecting to umbilical vessels

  • Baby and mother have own blood supply

• Removal of waste and filtering teratogens

Monochorionic/Monoamniotic

Shared placenta

• rarest (and highest risk) twins

Diachorionic/Diamniotic

• Fused Placenta or Separate Placenta but separate amniotic sac

Vernix Caseosa

• Protective barrier for the skin in 3rd trimester

• Guards against infection and water loss

• Nourishes skin and maintains body temperature

Typical Prenatal Care

• Date scan between 11 and 14 weeks

• Genetic testing

• 12-22 week scan

• Regular ultrasound

• Monthly monitoring of fetal heartbeat and size

• Maternal recommendations for exercise, nutrition, and risks

• Addressing concerns such as bleeding

• Emergency intervention (& pre-term birth)

Physical symptoms of pregnancy

• Early spotting (around implantation)

• Back pain

• Nausea

• Constipation

• Swollen ankles/feet

• Skin changes (redness and stretch marks)

In-vitro Fertilization (IVF)

• Advances in medical technology allow for assisted fertilization and implantation

• Total cost can range from $17k-75k depending on number of cycles

Complications of pregnancy

• Miscarriage

• Gestational diabetes

• Anemia – lack of red blood cells (typically due to a lack of iron)

• Placenta previa – placenta covers the cervical opening

• Preeclampsia – dangerously high blood pressure

• Placental abruption – separation of the placenta from the uterine wall during pregnancy

Miscarriage

• Early termination of pregnancy due to physical change, genetic mutation, injury

• More likely in mother has HBP, diabetes, thyroid issues

  • certain medications and infections increase risk of miscarriage

• Age related

Teratogens

• Any environmental agent that can cause damage during the prenatal period

• Ex: drugs, chemicals, diseases (viral or bacterial)

• Introduced through maternal behavior, some through exposure

• Effects depend on several factors

What are some factors of teratogens?

Dosage, Timing, and Genetic Susceptibility

Example of Teratogens

• Alcohol (and fetal alcohol syndrome)

  • Can result in multiple syndromes and disorders

  • Lead to physical and cognitive defects

  • Birth defects in several organs

  • Significant delays in speech and cognitive abilities

Environmental toxins (teratogens)

• Natural and manufactured chemicals that may affect human health

  • Ex: household chemicals, pollution (water and air), heavy metals (such as mercury and lead), plastics and flame-retardant chemicals, & pesticides and agricultural products

Zika virus/microcephaly

• Example of a teratogen

• Large head size

Maternal influences

• Nutrition

  • Folic acid, iron, & calcium

• Balanced diet

• Nutrient deficiencies during critical periods linked to ADHD

• Stress

• Exercise

• Family history

Braxton-Hicks contractions

• “false labor”

• can happen anytime after 20 weeks

Factors for an early c-section

• High-risk such as breech position or large head

For first-time mothers

• Average labor time is 12-24 hours

• Active labor (cervix dilating): 8-18 hours

Stages of Childbirth

• Stage 1 - Contractions and cervical opening

• Stage 2 - Pushing stage

• Stage 3 - Afterbirth

Stage 1 - Contractions and cervical opening

• Laboring involves contractions and slow progress

• Cervix expands from 0 cm to 10 cm dilation

• Contractions may begin on their own or require intervention

Labor induction

Involves triggering the uterus to contract (and sometimes get the cervix to soften)

• Prostagladins: dilate the cervix

• Oxytocin: can begin contractions

Stage 2 - Pushing stage

• Active process of pushing toward baby’s birth

• This stage is typically 2-3 hours at most

• This stage ends with the baby out

Stage 3 - Afterbirth

• Remaining pregnancy material expelled

• Placenta, amniotic sac, umbilical cord removed

• About 15-30 minutes after baby is out

Childbirth practices

• Hospital, home birth, water birth

• Laboring can take place in different positions

Babies after birth

• Cleaning, opening lungs for breathing

• APGAR score

• Measurements

• Breastfeeding

• Skin-to-skin contact

What does APGAR in APGAR score stand for?

Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respiration

What is considered healthy on the APGAR score?

• Above 7

• (10 point scale)

Low birth weight

Less than 5.5 pounds at birth

Very low birth weight

3.5 pounds

Extremely low birth weight

2 pounds

Preterm

Birth 3 weeks or more before full-term date

• Just over 10% of infants in the US born preterm

• Higher risk of infection, brain damage, learning disability

Post-partum period

About 6 weeks, but recovery is longer

• uterus shrinks to preterm size

• emotional “blues” are common

  • (70% of women)

Post-partum depression

Serious major depressive episode during post-partum period

• 10% of women

• Sadness, anxiety, difficulty completing tasks, & serious complications (psychosis) if untreated

Breastfeeding post-partum

• Feeding about 8-12 times daily in the first month

• Predictable patterns of eating (every 2-3 hours)

• During periods of rapid growth, more may be necessary