Final Social Psychology Exam

What are the five integrative negation steps?

Define the conflict, Reasons & rationales for positions, Perspective taking, Invent options for mutual gain, Reaching an agreement

What is the difference between positions and interests in conflict?

A position is a stated desired outcome (“what” you want)
An interest in conflict is the motivation or value driving that position (“why” it matters)

What are the three conflict styles that Gottman has found in his research on married couples? Which one is best or can they all be fine?

Validating, Volatile, Conflict-avoiding

They can all be fine, as long as they aren’t mismatched

What are some examples of non-complementary behavior (flipping the script) that Jesus provides in Matthew 5:38-41? How does understanding the culture of that time provide added insight to what he says in these passages? *potential essay item

Don’t resist an evil-doer or take revenge

Turning the other cheek: seen as an insult to be slapped, showing other cheek shows full humanity and forces the striker to face them (a moral mirror)

Giving someone your cloak as well: Shows the system that oppressed the poor, sometimes causing damage to both parties by being naked

Going a second mile: This could get the military officer in trouble

What is the idea of naïve realism as explained by Julia Minson, and how does is show up in everyday conflict (Podcast: How to keep conflict from spiraling)

People naively believe that their perspective of reality is correct/realistic

This leads to people believing that everyone else’s view of reality is wrong, which leads to conflict

What is conversational receptiveness, and what are its four components (the “HEAR” acronym) as described in the episode? (Podcast: How to keep conflict from spiraling)

Conversational receptiveness is the use of words and phrases to demonstrate that you are engaged with their point of view in a visible and recognizable way

Hedging (perhaps, sometimes, maybe)

Emphasizing agreement

Acknowledgement (restate you counterpart’s position)

Reframing to the positive (say the same thing, but with positive words)

What are the three main areas that researchers have found for forgiveness positively impacting people?

Causes lower depression and anger/hostility

A connection between forgiving others and better physical health

Compassionate reappraisal (thinking about an offender more empathetically) leads to better sleep

What are the five components of an apology? Which component is the most controversial or tricky to navigate and why?

Apology “marker” (I’m sorry)

Account (This is why it occurred)

Accepting responsibility (It was my fault'; I’m responsible)

Promise of forbearance (this will not happen again)

Restitution/Repair

The account part is the most controversial, as it seems to give excuses as to why the action occurred

Be able to analyze an apology using the five components. *potential essay item

Apology “marker” (I’m sorry)

Account (This is why it occurred)

Accepting responsibility (It was my fault'; I’m responsible)

Promise of forbearance (this will not happen again)

Restitution/Repair

What is the relationship between apologies and social identity?

An apology is an attempt to create a “split” of the self

It’s a means of restoring the wrong-doer’s social identity (and of the victim)

However, many still think that giving an apology will hurt social identity

What are some differences between apologies in Japan versus the U.S.?

Japan: private, conformity to formula, relationship message

US: Public, owns actions, spontaneity/originality, individualistic message

What is the hedonic treadmill, and how does it act as an “enemy” of gratitude? (Podcast: The enemies of gratitude)

We adapt to all of the things in our lives

The things that we were once grateful for in our lives just become our normal

Explain the concept of “headwinds vs. tailwinds” in Gilovich’s work. How does this metaphor relate to gratitude? (Podcast: The enemies of gratitude)

When you’re runing at the wind (headwind), you’re always aware of it

But when the tailwind is behind you, you are only grateful for a bit, losing sight of it and the boost it’s giving you

We focus on the hard things so heavily and forget about all the good things pushing us along in our lives

How can testosterone impact s ex differences in how children play? How can culture shape and mold our biological tendencies? (Video: How testosterone & culture shape behavior)

They make boys more aggressive and more likely to participate in rough and tumble play, girls are more likely to play social/household-related games

It tells us how we should fit into the world and the way a culture is set up with gun laws, healthcare, and socioeconomic inequalities can have a big impact on biological tendencies

What are some examples of how boys and men are falling behind in education, workforce, and mental & physical health? (Podcast: Why We Must Save Our Boys)

For every 100 women to get a college degree, 74 men earn one

There are 9 million unemployed men

Men are three times more likely to commit suicide

60% of the homeless population are men

93% of the prison popolation is male

Why is this happening? (Podcast: Why We Must Save Our Boys)

There is so much focus on making women equal to men, so men aren’t receiving the same amount of attention and opportunities anymore. Rather than equal benefits for men and women, women have now been over-benefitted compared to the men. It has also been noticed that boys develop a lot slower than girls. It takes them a little longer to fully develop and mature

What is self-complexity? What are the sex differences in this area? (Podcast: Why We Must Save our Boys)

Self complexitity is a plurality of your identity; you have multiple characteristics

Women have wider self-complexity than men

What are problems with using the term “toxic masculinity”? (Podcast: Why We Must Save our Boys)

It puts boys off and pathegizes things that are natural. Makes boys feel like they shouldn’t be feeling the ways they do. It is also often used to broadly.

What were Reeves’ three policy solutions? (Podcast: Why We Must Save our Boys)

More males receiving a paid paternal leave (same as women)

More males being in the education system

More males in the HEAL jobs (Healthcare, Education, Administration, and Literacy)

What are some sex differences between male and female brains? How about health impacts?

The male brain is 10% larger than the female brain, with stronger front-to-back connections and is optimized for motor skills

They are more likely to develop alcohol dependence, 3x more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder, 4x more likely to have autism, and 2x as likely to develop Parkinson’s disease

The female brain has stronger side-to-side connections, is optimized for intuitive thinking and has more grey matter

They are 2x as likely to have depression, develop Alzheimer’s disease, 4x more likely to develop multiple sclerosis, and more likely to have a stroke

What are some sex differences related to suicidal behavior?

Females are more likely to make suicide attempts, but males are more likely to die by suicide

Males write about lacking purpose + taking up space, while females write about issues related to relationships

What were some other sex differences discusses in lecture?

Women enter puberty earlier, live longer, and have more fat and less muscle, are more likely to have depression anxiety or eating disorders

Men are more likely to have autism, ADHD, and antisocial personality disorder

Men behave in more aggressive ways and more ways to harm others, with physical aggression. Women are more likely to use verbal or relational aggression

What is the attractiveness halo effect?

Attractive people are morel likely to be seen positively on many different traits

What are some advantages of high attractiveness?

First impressions, mating prospects, parent & peer favoritism, education & employment, electoral success, and judicial outcomes

Describe the main economic benefits of being beautiful.

You earn more money, have more job opportunities, have more success in school, fare better in court + in other opportunities, like job promotions

What is the mere exposure effect?

The more time you spend around others, the more you end up liking them

What is more likely, “Birds of a feather flock together” or “Opposites attract”? What is the primary exception?

Birds of a feather flock together

Forced associations?

What is the “Averageness Hypothesis”?

People like the combination/average of faces more than individual faces

In non-human animals, what characteristics are preferred for mates?

Exaggerated masculine characteristics

What were the main results of Perrett et al.’s (1998) study of feminine and masculine faces for males and females?

When women are ovulating, they are more likely to prefer a masculinized face

How did DeBruine test the beauty of symmetry? (The Beauty of Symmetry video)

She made two copies of the same face, one was symmetrical, one was asymmetrical and asked college students which picture appealed to them more

How do testosterone and dopamine influence se xual behavior and attraction? (Testosterone vs Dopamine video)

Testosterone dramatically increases sex drive (gets them into bed) and dopamine rewards them (keeps them in bed)

What was the example from the bungee jumping study? (Testosterone vs Dopamine video)

The women thought that the men were more attractive after they had bungee jumped (after dopamine)

Acording to Baird, what appears to be the underlying factor for why a particular male body odor is more attractive to a woman? (Smell of Attraction video)

They are able to know if their immune system is biologically optimal (through pheromones and proteins)

Are females or males better at detecting odors? (Smell of Attraction video)

Females are better at this

On average, what types of female voices do men find more attractive? What is the explanation for this result? Voices video)

Men choose women with higher-pitched voices

They think they are healthier, more fit, younger, and have higher estrogen levels

On average, what types of male voices do women find more attractive? What is the explanation for this result? Voices video)

Women choose men with deeper voices

They think they are stronger and have more testosterone

What is the relationship between ovulation and the attractiveness of a female’s voice? (Voices video)

A woman’s voice gets higher and her appearance becomes more appealing during ovulation

What is the matching phenomenon?

You match with someone close to your level of attractiveness

What are the four horsemen of a marriage headed for divorce?

Criticism (generalization + all or nothing), Defensiveness, Contempt, Stonewalling (withdrawal/no emotion in relationship)

What are some of the surprising results from Gottman’s research on marriage?

Explosive relationships can be long-lasting, emotionally inexpressive relationships can be very stable, couple who start out complaining about each other tend to have better marriages than couples that don’t, a 5:1 positive to negative interaction ratio is best, expressions of anger (without contempt) are not predictive of a bad marriage, fighting can be the healthiest thing for a marriage

What is the single largest factor for convicting innocent people?

Eyewitness error

What are the three kinds of evidence that have been used to examine eyewitness testimony? (Eyewitnesses video) *potential essay item

Lab studies, field studies, and DNA exoneration

What are the markers of eyewitness misidentification? (Eyewitnesses video) *potential essay item

Witnesses being slow to administer identification, comparing one suspect to another, lower level of confidence at time of identification (the validation of their original guess raises confidence level)

What are some things that impact the reliability of eyewitness identification? (Eyewitnesses video) *potential essay item

Delays between event and lineup, cross-racial identification (outgroup homogeneity bias), weapons effect (better memories of weapons), relative-judgement process, pressure to make an identification, reinforcing responses

What can be done to make the eyewitness identification process more accuate? How do these things relate to the scientific process? (Eyewitnesses video) *potential essay item

Blank lineup (using a control group), sequential lineup, blind administrator of lineup (double-blind procedures), high functional size (sample size, viable lineup members), culprit-description strategy, let witness describe everything first, then ask probing questions, treat memory like a crime scene

What are the “minimization” and “maximization” techniques Dr. Julia Shaw describes, and why might they be controversial in police interviews? (Secrets of Police Interviews Video)

Minimization is a good cop approach whereas maximization is more aggressive and can increase the consequences of the situation

This could pressure a confession out of someone

According to the video, how could an innocent person behave during interrogation to avoid giving a false confession? (Secrets of Police Interviews Video)

Don’t rely on the fact that people can tell you are innocent

Get a lawyer

The less you say, the better

How might the science of memory and false memory (which Dr. Shaw researches) impact the reliability of confessions obtained under pressure? (Secrets of Police Interviews Video)

They show a confession may not always be accurate

Memory is malleable, especially under pressure, so it could be an inaccurate confession

In what ways does Dr. Shaw suggest police interrogations could be improved to reduce the risk of wrongful convictions? (Secrets of Police Interviews Video)

Keep interrogations neutral, don’t minimize or maximize your approach, don’t assume someone is guilty just off of body language

What is a transient or compliant false confession? (False Confessions video) *potential essay item

Being coerced into a confession under the belief that it’s in your best interest to falsely confess

What is the impact of law enforcement’s ability to lie about evidence? (False Confessions video) *potential essay item

It shakes the suspect’s view of reality

Are false confessions discernible? (False Confessions video) *potential essay item

No

What can be done to help minimize false confessions? (False Confessions video) *potential essay item

Video record all interrogations/interviews performed

What are some strategies for detecting lies?

Increasing cognitive load (Those who are lying already have to hold a lot of information in their head)

Making it more difficult to tell the story is the key to getting liars to give themselves away (Make interviewee tell the story in reverse order or ask for specific details of the setting or to draw the setting)

What are some problems with using polygraph test?

They are more likely to declare the innocent guilty

Can’t tell the difference between anxiety, irritation, and guilt

Many known spies have passed polygraph tests

Pyschopaths are the most prepared to pass

What are some better strategies for lie detection?

Guilty knowledge test/concealed information test (using evidence that only someone from the crime scene would react to)

Using EEGs and fMRIs (recognizing code words or showing when one is recalling artificial memories)

What are some definitions of social pyschology?

The branch of psychological science mainly concerned with understanding how the presence of others affects our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

How people affect and are affected by others

How we think about, influence, and relate to others

It’s all about investigating the ways groups function, the costs and benefits of social status, the influences of culture, and all the other psychological processes involving two or more people

What are the two most fundamental ways that people misinterpret correlations? Be able to provide examples of each. *potential essay item

Directionality problem: We don’t know what causes the other (Having books in the home correlates with higher academic achievement, however, kids with higher academic achievement could just want more books around)

Third variable possibility: There could be another variable confounding the results (Giving blood correlates to having a decreased chance of heart attacks, but giving blood generally means you are healthier)

What is the cold read and how does it relate to the Barnum effect?

When high probability questions are asked (Broader generality=Higher probability it will apply)

Barnum statements are similar to cold reads, they are simply more specific statements that can still apply to most people

They are both applicable to most people

Know the difference between an independent and dependent variable,

The independent variable is the variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment.

The dependent variable is the variable the researcher measures but does not manipulate in an experiment.

Know the difference between a correlational and experimental study.

A correlational study is a type of descriptive research that involves the measuring the association between two variables, or how they go together

An experimental study is an experiment that has two or more independent variables that are being changed

What are the three main types of validity when examining a study? Give an example of each.

Internal Validity: Can the researcher make cause and effect statements? Random assignment, no confounding variables

Construct Validity: Accuracy of measurements and manipulations- are these good measures of the construct, is the experiment likely “see-through”?

External Validity: Generalizability of results- Could this translate to other groups/ a wider range or the “real world”?

What is affective forecasting? Give an example.

People have the greatest difficulty predicting the intensity and the duration of their future emotions

Example: Winning the lottery and losing your job average to about the same feeling after a year

What is impact bias? Give an example.

Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events

What is the psychological immune system? Give an example.

It enables emotional recovery and resilience after bad things happen
Example: After a break up or traumatic event

What is synthetic happiness? Give an example.

Making the best out of what you get

Example: Getting a color you didn’t like (when you’re younger), looking on the bright side 

What are the three key areas of the self? Give examples of each.

Self Knowledge: Self awareness, self esteem, self deception

Interpersonal Self: Public self, presentation, reputation

Agent Self: Executive function (self-control, decision making, how we get things done, control our emotions, etc.)

Describe Carol Dweck’s research on type of praise and future performance. How does it relate to the type of praise given in self-esteem programs?

She found that the type of praise you gave to children produced different effects. Praising their effort made them try harder, whereas praising their intelligence/abilities made their future performance suffer, as it gave them a fixed mindset.

The praise being given in the self-esteem programs fixed on very individual and fixed qualities, not focusing on the effort they were given or attitude they had. Instead of promoting a growth mindset, this promoted a fixed mindset.

Be able to describe the basic aspects of the original Milgram experiment.

He had the teacher shock the learner every time they got a question wrong and the voltage kept increasing. The learner would protest every time, until there was no response. 2/3 of people went all the way to the highest voltage.

What situations are more likely to induce conformity?

These conditions increased obedience

The person giving orders is close at hand and is perceived to be a legitimate authority

The authority figure is associated with a prestigious institution 

The victim is depersonalized or in another room

No role models for disobeying the authority figure

What situations are more likely to induce conformity?

Having 3-5 people, having everyone agree outwardly, “we feeling“, higher-status people, public responses to something, publicly committing to something.

A large important group that is very public

Compare and contrast Sherif’s and Asch’s studies of conformity. Which is an example of normative influence and which is an example of informational influence?

Sherif’s studies asked men to determine how much the point of light had moved and the responses became quite different. Asch’s studies asked a group to look at four lines and say which two were the same length, and once the group started saying different answers, many of the participants would change their answer to the group consensus.

These were similar because they were both looking at how answers changed when in a group. They had similar results in which the answers reflected the full group’s perspective and were just wrong. 

They were different because Asch had people give wrong answers on purpose to see what would happen and Sherif’s participants skewed the answer among themselves unknowingly.

Sherif = Informational influence

Asch = Normative influence

What are the ABCs of attitude? Give an example of each.

Affect- feelings or emotions associated with an attitude change (The weather affecting a mood?)

Behavior- Behaviors we have performed with respect to an attitude object (Smiling makes you happier)

Cognition- Thoughts, beliefs, and attributes associated with an attribute object (Having a certain attitude towards a certain object/grouping?)

Describe the Stanford Prison Experiment.

Zimbardo had a fake prison set up and randomly assigned people to either being a guard or a prisoner. The experiment was meant to see how people took to being authority and if evil is situational. (He thought there was evil in everyone)

What are demand characteristics? What was an example from the Prison Experiment?

When participants alter their characteristics behavior to act like how they think the experimenter wants them to act

The guards admitted to trying to act a certain way in order to make the experimenters happy with them (They found out the experiment was to make the prison based on the guards’ behavior

Provide some examples of embodied cognition.

What’s happening in our bodies or in our environment has an effect on how we think about things

People judge others to be more generous and caring after they had briefly held a warm cup of coffee, rather than a cold drink

Those sitting in hard, cushionless chairs were less willing to compromise than people who sat in soft, comfortable chairs 

How does the flexibility of language impact “framing”?

It presents something as either the positive or negative version

90% lean, 10% fat

What is the confirmation bias?

We are eager to verify our beliefs and less inclined to disprove them

Give an example of the fundamental attribution error (also called correspondence bias).

When trying to understand the cause of someone’s current behavior, we tend to overestimate the influence of personal traits (honesty, moodiness, laziness) and underestimate the influence of the situation

In a study, half of the participants created jeopardy questions, and then both groups answered, and observers thought that the creators of the questions were smarter, even when told that they had created the questions

What are the two message routes of persuasion (Petty and Cacioppo)? Give an example of each.

Central: Focusing on the arguments: talking about stopping sexual violence and asking for donations

Peripheral: Focusing on cues that trigger acceptance without much thinking: using celebrities in commercials, talking about the environment in a shoe commercial

How does the foot-in-the-door phenomenon relate to Milgram’s Obedience Experiments?

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request (Agreeing to help shovel someone’s driveway → cleaning their house)

For every voltage they increase, the higher they are willing to go and the easier that becomes

Describe and give examples for the six principles that elicit our compliance (Cialdini).

Commitment: foot-in-the-door phenomenon & low-ball tactic (start small and then make more requests)

Scarcity: items that are perceived as scarce are more valued, toys around Christmas

Authority: Perceived expertise (speak confidently & fluently) and perceived trustworthiness (eye contact, arguing against their own self-interest, & speaking quickly)

Reciprocity: I give you something, you give me something in return (pens, calendars, etc.)

Liking: Physical attractiveness and similarity, Q-ratings (familiarity and appeal)

Consensus: general opinions of people (9 out of 10 dentists…, best selling truck on the road)

What are some of the consequences of downward comparisons?

Self-Enhancement effect: People boosting their own self-evaluations by comparing themselves to others who rank lower on a particular comparison standard

Behavioral consequences: We stop complaining about our own lives

What are some of the consequences of upward comparisons?

Counterfactuals: “If only I had…”

Relative deprivation: I thought mine was nice, then I saw other people’s, not mine isn’t as nice to me anymore

Behavioral consequences: We become motivated to become better

What were some examples of social comparison and how the girls in the video talked about body image?

Comparing yourself or what you own to other people and what they own

They talked about the thigh gap, the ideal body, and how it was difficult to feel comfortable in their own skin

What are the primary differences between fixed and growth mindsets?

Fixed mindsets believe that one’s personal qualities are fixed, set, and not open to change

Growth mindsets believe that one’s personal qualities are malleable, changeable, and can be developed through effort

What is culture and cultural intelligence?

A pattern of shared meaning and behavior

The ability and willingness to apply cultural awareness to practical uses

What are some differences between individualism and collectivism? How does each impact a person’s self-concept and self-esteem?

Individualists give priority to one’s own goals over group goals and define themselves in terms of personal attributes

Collectivists give priority to the goals of one’s group and define one’s identity in terms of the group

Individualists focus on themselves and form their self-esteem from their accomplishments

Collectivists look at how they fit into a group

Define aggression. What is the difference between instrumental and hostile aggression?

An intentional behavior, where the intent is to harm, and the victim wants to avoid harm

Instrumental aggression is a means to an end

Hostile aggression is driven by anger and is an end in itself. The goal is to injure

What is the catharsis hypothesis for dealing with anger? What does the research say about the catharsis hypothesis? Provide research examples. What are Biblical examples?

The process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions

Venting brings anger to the front of your mind for the next time there is a stimulus. You practice your reaction for the next time, which means that anger will continue to be your reaction.

The Bible says not to be angry and to be slow to anger

What is the greatest cause of murder? (Don’t Get Hangry Video- Bushman)

Anger

What is the best predictor of criminal behavior? (Don’t Get Hangry Video- Bushman)

Poor self-control

Differentiate between prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination.

Prejudice: Negative attitude toward a group based on generalizations; judgments using group membership

Stereotype: To assign identical characteristics to any person in a group; rigid cognitive schema

Discrimination: Unjustifiable negative behavior based on group membership

What is contact theory? What elements are needed for contact to reduce prejudice and stereotypes?

Prejudice between groups can be reduced through interpersonal contact under specific, optimal conditions

Elements needed: Common or subordinate goals, equal status contact, sanctioned by authority, behavior that disconfirms stereotypes (come into contact with others)

What were the primary results in the study described in the video The Life-Changing Magic of Hanging Out?

The same race roommates had higher satisfaction and spent more time with their roommates in both the first and last two weeks of the semester 

The data among different race roommates improved much more than among the same race roommates, however

What was Dr. Mesquita’s reaction when she saw the Pixar movie Inside Out? How did she think people from other cultures would create a movie about emotions (i.e., would it be the same or different? If different, in what way?)? (Decoding Emotions podcast)

She didn’t think it was universally accurate

In Japan, it would be called Outside In, as emotion is primarily between people and more external, rather than the actual feeling and reasoning

Emotions are shaped by the situation

What does Feldman Barrett mean when she uses the word degeneracy with emotions?

“Many to one”

Many responses to the same emotion

Many combinations of neurons can produce the same emotion

What is awe? Describe the research on awe and the results Keltner and his collaborators have documented.

The feeling of being in the presence of something vast that transcends your understanding of the world

People drew themselves smaller when they were in awe, were happier and more likely to donate

What is “distanced self-talk”, and how does it help with emotional regulation?

Distanced self-talk is talking to yourself in the third person/coaching yourself through a problem, using your name, like you’re giving advice to a friend. It gets you more outside the situation and helps you to be more rational.