Marriages to Jane & Anne, Religious changes in the 1530s & Henry's reign of terror

His marriage to Jane Seymour

Henry had no heir or wife in 1536 after the execution of Anne & Elizabeth & Mary being declared as illegitimate & the death of Henry Fitzgerald. He married Jane at the end of 1536, she had been one of Anne’s ladies in waiting but she wasn’t as well educated as her & had a complete opposite personality. They were only married 17 months & she died in 1537 but Henry was left with his male heir. Jane was Catholic & had connections to the nobility & may have been involved in potential scheming from the factions but she is said to have maintained Henry’s favour during their marriage.

Changes in religious practice & doctrine in the 1530s

Images were removed from churches & shrines & the relics of saints were destroyed. Literature was produced that was intended to be accessed by all & subvert any remaining Catholic ideals, like the Bible in English. The new Bible encouraged widespread talk of religion & parliament had to stop women & the working class reading it in 1547 due to it’s subversive nature. Cromwell & Cranmer removed other obvious manifestations of Catholicism but proceeded carefully as the Pope held hopes of reconciliation with England & Henry after Boleyn’s fall. By the 1540s, progress towards Protestantism slowed but Catholicism wasn’t reintroduced either.

Religious policy 1536 - 1540 - The Act of the Ten Articles 1536

Was protestant & radical. Dismissed prayers for the dead & ignored 4 of the 7 traditional sacraments - only the eucharist, baptism & penance were affirmed. This emulated Luther yet it was contradictory was it didn’t support sola fide - people still had to do certain things to reach Heaven.

Religious policy 1536 - 1540 - The Bishop’s Book 1537

Was protestant & restored the 4 sacraments that had been previously omitted but declared them as less important. It didn’t mention transubstantiation, glossed over mass & only implied purgatory. Initially supported Luther’s ideas of sola fide but this was crossed out by Henry before publication.

Religious policy 1536 - 1540 - Royal injunctions

These were protestant. In 1536, Cromwell issued the first one which ordered the clergy to discourage superstitious devotion to shrines & images. In 1538 the 2nd set was issued & ordered the English Bible to be in every church for public reading - this was to be supervised by bishops. Cromwell instigated the breaking up of Thomas Beckett’s shrine at Canterbury was part of a wider campaign against shrines & images - iconoclasm - & the injunction implied the rejection of purgatory.

Religious policy 1536 - 1540 - The Great Bible 1539

This was the 1st authorised Bible in English & all parish churches were ordered to purchase a copy - they were threatened with fines in 1541. It allowed the church to become an instrument of propaganda through it’s use of imagery & language. Cromwell commissioned the title page & the front page included a royal court of arms & Henry as a dominant figure presenting the Bible to Cranmer & Cromwell. Cranmer described it as ‘the most precious jewel & most holy relic which remains on Earth’.

Religious policy 1536 - 1540 - The Act of the 6 Articles 1539

This was Catholic & conservative & reaffirmed the basis of Catholic theology following the case of John Lambert who was executed in 1538 for heresy because he denied transubstantiation. It was also partly a reaction to the increasing fear of a Catholic crusade. It declared the denial of transubstantiation as heretical, emphasised the importance of confession, enforced clerical celibacy, endorsed private masses & declared monastic vows permanent.

Reasons for Henry’s increasing insecurity in the 1530s

He was left with no heir in 1536 after both Mary & Elizabeth were illegitimised by the 2nd Act of Succession. He had Edward in 1537 but he was sickly & Henry still had no wife. His confidence had also been shaken by the pilgrimage of grace which was the crisis of the reign & the largest rebellion he faced. Rival factions frequently begun to battle for control. The Treaty of Nice was passed between Charles & Francis in 1538, allowing them to make peace & increasing the chances of a joint invasion encouraged by the Pope. He feared the White Rose would try & take the throne.

Henry’s ‘reign of terror’ 1532 - 47

Hundreds were arrested & executed in the 1530s - those who supported old religion & the papacy & opposed royal supremacy & the dissolution (Aske & Darcy, More, Fisher, Barton etc) were executed as traitors & those who took Protestantism too far were executed as heretics (John Lambert). From 1532 - 40 the total accusations of treason were 883 with 308 executed whereas the total after Cromwell’s death was 96. The accusations of treason due to rebellion were 287 with 178 being executed.

The 1538 ‘Exeter Conspiracy’ & the White Rose - the causes

Henry’s insecurities were close to paranoia by the late 1530s, despite Richard de la Pole who was the last man to openly challenge him being dead for years. These were worsened by the pilgrimage of grace, fears over Edward dying & possible brain damage after a fall in a tournament. He saw enemies everywhere & sought to vanquish the White Rose - the Pole family containing Margaret Pole as the last living Plantagenet (possibly had a stronger claim than him) & a circle of Catholics who disliked Henry & Cromwell.

The 1538 ‘Exeter Conspiracy’ & the White Rose - the events

Reginald Pole infuriated Henry with an insulting letter & his efforts to revive the pilgrimage of grace but he was abroad so Cromwell had difficulty finding legal grounds to arrest him. In June 1538, a sea captain was arrested who’d taken messages to Reginald & he implicated Geoffrey Pole. Geoffrey was sent to the tower & informed Henry of Lord Montague & Exeter’s dislike of his policies. They were all executed along with the captain, Margaret Pole & Edward Neville (implicated by Geoffrey).

The 1538 ‘Exeter Conspiracy’ & the White Rose - the outcomes

Cromwell had no written evidence for Geoffrey’s accusations & the executions but he implicated them all anyway. Henry viewed it as a serious threat and believed he’d narrowly escaped assassination but there was no evidence that there actually was an ‘Exeter Conspiracy’ to murder him.

The Cleves Marriage

After Jane Seymour’s death, Cromwell pushed for a Protestant alliance due to the fear of a Catholic crusade. He prepared the marriage to Anne of Cleves to fulfil this but Henry disliked her & called her a ‘Flanders Mare’. Henry annulled the marriage & felt embarrassed over the loss of a 4th marriage - especially as the Charles & Francis alliance fell apart so there was no longer a threat of invasion. Henry viewed the marriage as humiliating & unnecessary.

How the Cleves marriage caused Cromwell’s downfall

Henry felt humiliated & that Cromwell had trapped him & viewed him as demonstrating unforgivable disloyalty. This was made worse by Katherine Howard being pushed forward by Norfolk to catch Henry’s eye as Cromwell was blamed for the unnecessary fiasco of the Cleves marriage. Norfolk & Gardiner used the failure of the marriage to sway Henry away from Cromwell & Protestantism.

Religious factors in Cromwell’s fall from power

He took reform too far - Henry still identified as Catholic on his deathbed - & Cromwell was accused of being a heretic. Norfolk & Gardiner accused him f protecting Protestants who’d been denounced as heretics under the Act of the 6 Articles. The fear of a Catholic crusade was blamed on Cromwell’s influence on the Break with Rome & this fear also caused the need for the Cleves marriage & alliance.

Personal factors in Cromwell’s fall from power

He became widely disliked as he was very powerful (and many thought he often abused his power) & many didn’t like his non noble background. His enemies - the conservative faction - used religious & foreign issues against him to achieve a coup.

Political factors in Cromwell’s fall from power

The pilgrimage of grace was solely against him & made Henry realise how disliked he was. He had Catholic & noble opponents executed in 1538 but senior figures who opposed his influence remained. His rise to power & him gaining more titles annoyed the court - Norfolk & Gardiner - as well as his dominance in the privy council. Cromwell failed to control his enemies & they were determined to destroy him.