Final Exam Review: American Government Concepts

Judiciary Act

The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the federal court system and the Supreme Court. Initially, it had 5 justices (Jay Court). Today, there are 9—1 Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices.

State vs. Federal Caseload

Most cases are resolved in state courts or through plea bargains. The Supreme Court hears less than 1% of appeals.

Standing to sue

A plaintiff must demonstrate a personal stake in the outcome. To sue, you must show actual harm, that the defendant caused it, and that the court can redress it.

Burden of proof in criminal cases

In criminal cases, the burden is 'beyond a reasonable doubt.'

Burden of proof in civil cases

In civil cases, it's a 'preponderance of the evidence.'

State as plaintiff

In criminal cases, the government is always the plaintiff.

What court case established the power of the Court?

Marbury v. Madison (1803) established judicial review, giving courts power to declare laws unconstitutional—hugely expanding judicial power.

Current Supreme Court Justices (2025)

Roberts, Thomas, Alito, Sotomayor, Kagan, Gorsuch, Kavanaugh, Barrett, Jackson.

Key Judicial Terms

Rule of Four, writ of certiorari, precedent, writ of mandamus, due process.

Safety net

Programs like Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, food stamps.

Components of the Healthcare Act

Individual mandate, subsidies, Medicaid expansion, insurance exchanges.

Purpose of Safety Nets

To protect from insecurities from economic and societal changes.

Means-tested entitlements

Medicaid, SNAP, TANF—based on income.

Poverty line determination

Based on income thresholds by family size, updated annually.

Creation of Social Security

Created in 1935 as part of the New Deal. Provides retirement income. Funded by FICA taxes. At risk due to demographic shifts (more retirees than workers).

FICA taxes

6.2% SS, 1.45% Medicare from employee and employer.

Obamacare

Intended to expand coverage, regulate insurers, cut costs.

Dilemmas of the working poor

Too much income to qualify for aid; lack of benefits.

Capitalism

Private ownership; market-driven economy.

Public good

Non-rivalrous, non-excludable (e.g., national defense).

Inflation

Rising prices.

Recession

Falling economic activity.

Laissez faire

Minimal government interference.

GDP and GNP

GDP = Domestic; GNP = Global American output.

Goals of government during economic downturns

Stimulate demand; Keynesian spending.

Fiscal Policy

Government taxing, spending, borrowing decisions.

Minimalist vs. Activist State

Minimal = Night Watchman; Activist = Welfare-oriented.

Unemployment rate

% of labor force actively job-seeking.

Protectionism

Protect domestic industry using tariffs.

Reaganomics

Supply-side tax cuts, deregulation.

Federal Reserve

Controls inflation/employment; Chair: Jerome Powell.

Foreign policy instruments

Diplomacy, aid, military, alliances.

Cold War terminology

Coined by Walter Lippmann.

Role of Secretaries of State

Foreign policy liaisons, peace brokers.

Isolationism in U.S. Foreign Policy

Ended after WWII.

NATO

1949 alliance for collective defense.

United Nations

Founded 1945, promotes peace/human rights.

UN Goals Over Time

Expanded to include humanitarian aid.

Presidential Doctrines

Washington - neutrality. Truman - contain communism. Nixon - self-defense doctrine. Reagan - roll back communism. Bush 43 - preemptive war. Obama - diplomacy/multilateralism. Trump - America First. Biden - alliances & democracy. McNamara - proportionality. Powell - clear objective and exit.

Churchill's 'Iron Curtain' speech

'Sinews of Peace', 1946.

President's powers in war

Commander-in-Chief; Congress declares war; War Powers Act limits scope.

Invisible hand

It's the idea that when people try to make money for themselves, like running a business, they also help the economy without meaning to. For example, they create jobs and provide goods people want. The "invisible hand" guides the economy through self-interest, without needing much government control. Adam Smith coined it.

Democrat Approach to Healthcare

Democrats want the government to help more. They support programs like Obamacare to make sure more people have insurance, lower costs, and stop surprise medical bills.

Republican Approach to Healthcare

Republicans want less government control. They think competition in the market will lower costs. They also want states to handle more healthcare decisions and may require people on Medicaid to work or get checked more often.