History of Medicine Final

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William Harvey

Early 1600s English physician who discovered that blood circulates through the body and is pumped by the heart. Before him, people believed blood was constantly being made and burned up. His experiments used direct observation and vivisection. This helped shift medicine toward experimentation and away from ancient authorities like Galen.

Royal Society

Founded in 1660 in England, it was one of the first major scientific organizations. They supported experimentation, peer review, and scientific publishing. Helped spread new discoveries quickly. It shaped medicine by encouraging evidence-based science instead of tradition.

Marcello Malphigi

An Italian anatomist (1600s) who used microscopes to discover capillaries, connecting arteries and veins. He’s considered the father of microscopic anatomy. His work confirmed Harvey’s circulation theory. He helped medicine understand the body at a cellular level.

Thomas Sydenham

A 17th-century English physician known as the “English Hippocrates.” He emphasized careful clinical observation instead of theory. Helped create nosology (the classification of diseases). His work guided modern diagnosis.

Nosology

The systematic classification of diseases based on symptoms. Developed in the 17th–18th centuries. It turned medicine toward identifying specific diseases rather than vague “imbalances.” This helped doctors standardize diagnosis and treatment.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

A Dutch draper (1600s) who built extremely powerful microscopes. First to see bacteria, sperm, and blood cells. Known as the “Father of Microbiology.” His discoveries laid groundwork for germ theory centuries later.

Cartesian Dualism

Idea from René Descartes (1600s): the mind and body are separate. This encouraged doctors to study the body as a machine. It pushed medicine toward physical explanations instead of spiritual ones. Influential in anatomy and physiology.

Hermann Boerhaave

Dutch physician (late 1600s–early 1700s) who created structured medical teaching using bedside rounds. Sometimes called the “teacher of Europe’s physicians.” He pioneered clinical teaching at Leiden University. Helped lay foundations for modern medical education.

Albrecht von Haller

Swiss scientist (1700s) known for his work on physiology. He studied the nervous system and muscular irritability. Helped establish physiology as its own discipline. His work advanced understanding of body function.

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu

Early 1700s English aristocrat who promoted smallpox inoculation after seeing it in the Ottoman Empire. She introduced the technique to Britain. Her advocacy helped lead to widespread inoculation. A major figure in early public health.

Edward Jenner

English physician (late 1700s) who developed the smallpox vaccine using cowpox. His work founded modern immunology. Vaccination dramatically reduced smallpox deaths. Eventually led to the eradication of smallpox.

Daughters of Charity

Catholic nursing order founded in 1633. They provided organized, compassionate nursing in hospitals and war zones. Their system helped professionalize nursing. Major influence on later nursing training models (including Nightingale).

Paris Clinical School

Early 1800s medical movement emphasizing bedside observation, autopsies, and hospital medicine. Doctors used large numbers of patients to correlate symptoms with pathology. Introduced stethoscope use (Laennec). It made diagnosis more scientific.

Johns Hopkins

Founded in the 1890s in the U.S. Known for its innovative medical school model. Combined research, teaching, and clinical practice. Became the gold standard for modern medical education.

Mayo Clinic

Founded in the late 1800s in Minnesota. First major group practice where physicians collaborated. Emphasized teamwork and patient-first care. Influential in medical practice organization.

Louis Pasteur

French scientist (1800s) who developed germ theory, pasteurization, and vaccines for rabies/anthrax. Proved microorganisms cause disease. Revolutionized hygiene, surgery, and public health.

Robert Koch

German physician (1800s–early 1900s). Identified the specific bacteria that cause TB, cholera, anthrax. Created Koch’s postulates, rules linking microbes to diseases. Key figure in bacteriology.

Rudolf Virchow

German physician (1800s) who developed cellular pathology: all disease begins in cells. Advocated for social medicine—poverty and sanitation affect health. Considered the “father of modern pathology.”

Paul Ehrlich

German scientist (early 1900s). Developed the first “magic bullet” drug to target syphilis. Pioneer of immunology and chemotherapy. His work led to targeted drug therapies.

Spanish Flu

The 1918–1919 influenza pandemic that killed ~50 million people. Spread rapidly after WWI troop movements. Highlighted weaknesses in global public health. Led to improved disease surveillance.

Willhelm Rontgen

German physicist (1895) who discovered X-rays. Allowed doctors to see inside the body without surgery. Revolutionized diagnosis and trauma care.

Albert Schweitzer

20th-century physician and humanitarian who founded a hospital in Gabon. Advocate for global medical missions. Symbol of medical ethics and service.

Quinine

Bitter compound from cinchona tree bark used to treat malaria. Essential during colonial expansion in tropical regions. Allowed Europeans to survive in malaria-heavy areas. Key to tropical medicine.

Opium Wars

Mid-1800s wars between Britain and China over the opium trade. Led to widespread addiction, medical crises, and unequal treaties. Example of imperialism creating health disasters.

Tropical Medicine

Medical field studying diseases in tropical regions (malaria, yellow fever, etc.). Emerged during European imperialism. Often tied to controlling colonized populations. Led to major discoveries in vector-borne disease.

Red Cross and Red Crescent

Founded in 1863 to provide neutral humanitarian medical aid in wars. Created guidelines for wartime care. Expanded to disaster relief and blood services. Key organization in global health.

Florence Nightingale

Founder of modern nursing (Crimean War, 1850s). Emphasized hygiene, data, and organization. Transformed hospitals and nursing education. One of the most influential women in medicine.

Clara Burton

American nurse in the Civil War. Founded the American Red Cross. Promoted emergency relief, battlefield nursing, and disaster response.

Elizabeth Garrett Anderson

First woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain (1865). Opened medical school for women. Key pioneer for women’s medical rights.

Elizabeth Blackwell

First woman to earn a medical degree in the U.S. (1849). Opened hospitals and training programs for women. Helped break gender barriers in medicine.

Gerty Theresa Cori

Biochemist (mid-1900s). First American woman to win a Nobel Prize in science. Discovered the Cori cycle in metabolism. Major figure in biochemistry and endocrinology.

Bethlem

Historic London psychiatric hospital. Known for poor treatment of mentally ill patients. Symbol of early psychiatry’s failures and cruelty. Sparked reforms in mental health care.

William James

American psychologist/philosopher (late 1800s). Founder of functionalism. Helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline. Studied consciousness and emotion.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist (late 180s–1930s). Famous for classical conditioning (dogs salivating). Showed behavior could be conditioned. Influential in psychology and psychiatry.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist (late 1800s–1930s). Founded psychoanalysis. Focused on the unconscious, dreams, and childhood. Major influence—though controversial—on therapy and psychiatry.

Eugenics

Movement (1900s) to control reproduction to “improve” human populations. Led to forced sterilization and discrimination. Deeply unethical and pseudoscientific. Influenced public health and politics.

Roe vs. Wade

1973 U.S. Supreme Court case that legalized abortion nationwide (later overturned). Central to debates over reproductive rights. Represents conflict between medicine, ethics, and politics.

Psychotropic Drugs

Medications that affect the mind (antidepressants, antipsychotics, mood stabilizers). Became widespread after the 1950s. Transformed treatment of mental illness. Allowed many patients to live outside institutions.

Gene Therapy

Technique of treating diseases by altering genes. Developed late 20th century onward. Promising but raises ethical issues. Represents cutting-edge medical science.

AIDS

Disease caused by HIV, first recognized in 1980s. Became a global epidemic. Led to major public health mobilization, activism, and stigma battles. Major driver of modern global health policy.