western civilization

Late 1400s Unification of Spain

completion of the Reconquista

Bartolomeu Dias

was a Portuguese explorer who first sailed around the Cape of Good Hope in 1488

Vasco De Gama

was a Portuguese explorer who first reached India by sea in 1498

Treaty of Tortesillas

was a 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal to divide newly discovered lands

Christopher Columbus

was an Italian explorer who made four voyages to the Americas in the 15th century, he documented the journey and survived to tell of the riches and land available by sailing west

Pizzaro and the Incan Empire

was a Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incan Empire and destroyed their 600 soldiers in Peru

Cortes and the Aztec Empire

was a Spanish conquistador who led to the fall of the Aztec Empire by capturing their capital, Tenochtitlán by forming alliances, military strategy, and the spread of small pox

Silver mining in Spanish colonies

greatly boosted Spain’s wealth

Manilla Galleons

were Spanish trading ships that traded silver for silk, spices, porcelain in china

  Ferdinand Magellan

was a Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe

Colombian Exchange

the global exchange of plants, animals, human, diseases, etc that resulted from the mixing of the previously isolated eastern and western hemispheres

Political involvement

practicing in activities that influence government decisions and policies

Indulgences

grants by the Catholic Church that reduced punishment for sins, often sold during the Middle Ages

Louis XIV

was known as the Sun King, france king that’s famous for his absolute monarchy & the construction of the palace of Versailles

Martin Luther

was a German monk, started the Protestant Reformation, wrote the 95 theses that challenged the Catholic Church’s practices in the 1500’s

John Calvin

was a major figure in the Protestant reformation. developed the Christian theology aka Calvinism. worked to impose strict code of morality discipline.

Catholic counterreformation

was the church’s effort to reform itself and fight the spread of Protestantism

council of Trent

periodic meetings to discuss reform

Henry VIII and the English Reformation

was king of England who initiated the English Reformation by breaking away from the Catholic Church and establishing the Anglican Church

Women’s role in society and Reformation

women’s roles were to stay at home and take care of the house/family, but the movement increased their literacy and involvement in religious discussions

Encomienda system

allowed Spanish colonists to demand labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection/ religious instruction, but instead the system led to exploitation/mistreatment towards the indigenous

Indentured servitude

was a system where people worked for a set number of years in exchange for passage, room, and board

African Slave Trade

was the forced transportation of Africans to the Americans for labor

Triangle trade

was a system where European goods were traded for African slaves, who were then sold in the americas, and American goods were shipped back to Europe

European economic crisis of late 1500s

was marked by inflation, high taxes, and declining silver imports from the Americas

Holy Roman Empire and Charles V

ruled the Holy Roman Empire and faced challenges from the Protestant Reformation and conflicts with France and the Ottoman Empire

Edict of Worms

declared Martin Luther an outlaw and banned his writings

Peace of Augsburg

allowed German princes to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as their realm’s religion

Spanish Armada

was a fleet sent by Spain to invade England but was defeated by the English navy

Religious Tension in France

was marked by conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots, leading to events like the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

was a brutal attack on Huguenots by Catholics in Paris, resulting in thousands of deaths & intensifying the religious conflicts in France

Edict of Nantes

granted Huguenots religious freedom and civil rights, aiming to end religious conflicts in France

Habsburgs vs Bourbons rivalry

was a conflict between two powerful European dynasties, primarily over control and influence in Europe (Bourbons-ruled France) (Habsburgs-ruled Austria and Spain)

30 Years War

was the bloodiest conflict of its era in Europe. Starting as a war over religion, it transformed into a political conflict that ravaged the kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire

Treaty of Westphalia

ended the 30 Years War, economic troubles (high debt/inflation), end of Iberian union (Spain and Portugal), Austrian Habsburgs (lost all gains made during war), France emerged strong

English Civil War

was fought between the Parliamentarians and the Royalists. It ended with the execution of King Charles I & the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell

Charles I

was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland until his execution. his reign was marked by conflicts with parliament, which led to the English Civil War

Oliver Cromwell

ruler of Commonwealth of England until his death, crushed rebellions often, revolt under his sons rule, restoration of monarchy Charles II

Palace of Versailles

Louis XIV deprived the nobility of power but increased their social prestige through the…

Absolutism

is a political system where a ruler holds total power, oten justified by the belief in divine right, meaning their authority is granted directly by God

England and the Glorious Revolution of 1688

was a bloodless coup in which King James II was overthrown and replaced by William of Orange and his wife Mary, leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy

Constitutional Monarchy

is a system of government where the monarch’s powers are limited by a constitution, and they often share power with an elected parliament

Peter the Great

was a Russian czar who modernized and westernized Russia in the late 17th and early 18th centuries

Russian absolutism and modernization in the late 1600s and early 1700s

was marked by czars holding absolute power. Modernization, led by Peter the Great, included reforms in government, military, economy, and society to Westernize Russia

9 years war

was a conflict between France and a coalition of European powers over territorial disputes and the balance of power in Europe

War of Spanish Succession

was a conflict over who should inherit the Spanish throne after the death of Charles II of Spanish

Treaty of Utrecht 1713

ended the war of the Spanish Succession and redistributed territories among European powers   

Habsburgs

were a powerful European royal family that ruled over Austria, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire

Austria

is a landlocked country in Central Europe known for its cultural history and alpine scenery

Prussia

was a historical German state known for its military strength and role in unifying Germany in the 19th century

House of Hohenzollern

is a German royal family that ruled Prussia and the German Empire

Fredrick William

aka “Great Elector” was a ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia who strengthened the state and its military in the 17th century

Nicolaus Copernicus

was a Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory, stating that the earth and planets revolve around the sun

Isaac Newton

was an English mathematician and physicist who’s widely recognized for his laws of motion and universal gravitation

Scientific Method

is a systematic process used for scientific investigation, involving observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and conclusion. was an era of expanded scientific discovery, scientists began asking not just why but how the world worked.

Francis Bacon

was an English philosopher and statesman who developed and popularized the scientific method

Rene Descartes

was a French philosopher and mathematician known for his statement “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) and for his contributions to the development of analytical geometry

Heliocentrism

the theory that Copernicus advocated for promoted the sun at the center of the solar system.

Elena Piscopia

first to receive academic degree from university- a doctorate of philosophy in 1678

Laura Bassi

Physics professor at University of Bologna, wrote on physics of air and fluids

Emilie du châtelet

French mathematician and physicist, translated newtons principle Mathematica

Maria Winkelmann

German astronomer, worked under her husband, rejected for position after his passing, continued her career

John Locke

aka “Father of Liberalism,” whose ideas on natural rights, government, and the social contract influenced the Enlightenment and modern political thought

Voltaire

Born Francois Marie Arouet, arguably the most famous Enlightenment thinker, well-connected and prolific, inspired by John Locke, Francis Bacon, and British Parliament, he was French, but idealized British politics over France’s absolutism

Montesquieu

known for his theory of the separation of powers, which influenced modern democratic governments

Jean-Jacques Rousseau/Radical Enlightenment

philosopher ideas on direct democracy and the social contract were key elements of the Radical Enlightenment , challenging traditional authority and influencing the French Revolution

Mary Wollstonecraft

best known for her work “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman,” advocating for women’s education and equality

Physiocrats

were a group of 18th century French economists who believed that agriculture was the source of all wealth and advocated for minimal government intervention in the economy

Laissez-faire

an economic philosophy advocating for minimal government intervention in the market, allowing businesses and individuals to operate freely based on supply and demand

Adam Smith

best known for his book “the wealth of nations,” which laid the foundations for classical economics and introduced the concept of the invisible hand guiding free markets

Slavery in Age of Enlightenment

slavery was debated, with some thinkers advocating for abolition and human rights, while others justified it for economic reasons

7 years war

was a global conflict involving major powers like Britain, France, and Spain, leading to significant territorial changes, especially in North America and India

Outcome/territorial exchanges in North America

the outcome of the seven years war saw Britain gaining control of Canada and Florida, while France ceded Louisiana to Spain

American Revolution in the context of the Enlightenment

was influenced by Enlightenment ideas, emphasizing individual rights, liberty, and democratic governance, leading to the creation of the US

effects of the reformation

division of the Catholic Church, increased literacy and education, religious conflicts and wars in Europe, strengthening of national government over the church

effects of counter-reformation

strengthening of the Catholic Church, reform of church practices, increase on education, led to tension between Catholics and Protestants, resulting in series of religious wars across Europe

Characteristics of scientific revolution

emphasis on abstract reasoning, quantitative thought, an understanding of how nature works, and the development of an experimental scientific method.

European balance of power

by making alliances and peace (prevented any one nation from dominating the continent by distributing power among various countries)