Cognitive Processes, Memory, Intelligence, Emotion, Personality & Development – Comprehensive Review

A set of 90 question-and-answer flashcards covering key concepts from cognition, memory, heuristics, intelligence, motivation, emotion, personality, and developmental psychology to facilitate exam preparation.

What are the three basic stages of memory according to the Atkinson–Shiffrin model?

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

Which type of processing occurs when mental activities are carried out one after another?

Serial processing.

Which mental processing type is tested with reaction-time experiments to determine serial vs. parallel processing?

Parallel processing (contrasted with serial).

In the Stroop task, why is reaction time slower for incongruent word–color pairs?

Because automatic reading interferes with controlled color naming, highlighting cognitive load and limited resources.

What phenomenon describes the temporary depletion of mental resources after strenuous cognitive effort?

Cognitive depletion.

Define the availability heuristic.

A mental shortcut in which judgments of frequency or likelihood are based on how easily examples come to mind.

Which heuristic involves judging membership in a category by how much something resembles the prototype?

Representativeness heuristic.

What is anchoring in decision making?

A bias where initial information serves as a reference point and influences subsequent judgments.

According to the information-processing continuum, where does memory fit?

It is one component that follows attention, sensation, perception, and learning and precedes cognition.

How long does information typically last in sensory memory?

About one second or less.

Which sensory memory code lasts longer, visual (iconic) or acoustic (echoic)?

Acoustic (echoic) memory lasts longer.

What is chunking in short-term memory?

Grouping similar or meaningful information together to increase capacity.

Name the four components of working memory identified by Baddeley.

Phonological loop, Visuospatial sketchpad, Central executive, Episodic buffer.

What effect describes better recall for items at the beginning of a list?

Primacy effect.

Which effect describes superior recall for the last items in a list?

Recency effect.

Differentiate declarative from non-declarative memory.

Declarative (explicit) memories are consciously recalled (semantic & episodic), whereas non-declarative (implicit) memories influence behavior unconsciously (procedural, priming, classical conditioning).

Give an example of procedural memory.

Knowing how to ride a bicycle.

What theory explains how concepts are linked and activation spreads through a memory network?

Spreading activation model.

What is encoding specificity?

The idea that retrieval is most effective when cues present during encoding are also present during retrieval.

Define flashbulb memory.

A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event.

What two types of interference lead to forgetting?

Proactive interference and Retroactive interference.

Describe retrograde amnesia.

Inability to retrieve memories formed before a certain point in time.

Which brain structure is crucial for consolidating declarative memories?

The hippocampus.

What practice schedule generally enhances long-term retention compared to cramming?

Distributed practice.

Name one biological chemical that influences memory formation.

Glutamate (others include serotonin, epinephrine, estrogen).

Define intelligence according to Gottfredson (1997).

A very general mental capacity that involves reasoning, planning, problem solving, abstract thinking, learning quickly, and learning from experience.

List Gardner’s original seven intelligences.

Logical-mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal (later Naturalist & Existential added).

What are Sternberg’s three types of intelligence?

Analytical, Creative, and Practical intelligence.

Which IQ test is most widely used for adults?

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).

Define reliability in psychological testing.

The degree to which a test produces consistent results over time.

What is the Flynn effect?

The observed rise in average IQ scores worldwide over decades.

Explain stereotype threat.

Fear that one’s performance will confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group, which can impair actual performance.

Differentiate crystallized and fluid intelligence.

Crystallized is accumulated knowledge; fluid is the ability to learn quickly and solve novel problems.

What neurotransmitter-related change illustrates epigenetic influence on intelligence?

Prenatal vitamin B12 affecting gene related to dopamine function.

Self-determination theory states humans need three basic psychological needs. Name them.

Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness.

According to the Yerkes–Dodson law, how does arousal affect performance on complex tasks?

Performance decreases when arousal is high for complex tasks.

Which brain area acts as the hunger “on switch”?

Lateral hypothalamus (LH).

Name the hormone produced by fat cells that signals satiety.

Leptin.

What are the four phases of the sexual response cycle identified by Masters & Johnson?

Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution.

Define emotional intelligence (EQ).

Ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions.

What does the James–Lange theory state about emotion?

Physiological arousal precedes and causes the subjective experience of emotion.

Contrast the Cannon–Bard theory with James–Lange.

Cannon–Bard posits physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently.

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

Facial muscle activity influences emotional experience (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier).

According to Schachter–Singer, which two factors create emotion?

Physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal/label.

Define appraisal in modern emotion theories.

The evaluation of how a stimulus relates to one’s well-being, initiating emotional responses.

What are the three components of emotion?

Cognition, Physiology, and Behavior/Expression.

List the six universally recognized facial expressions.

Happiness, Anger, Surprise, Disgust, Sadness, Fear.

In Freud’s structural model, which part operates on the reality principle?

The Ego.

What is a defense mechanism according to Freud?

Unconscious strategy the ego uses to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

Which Neo-Freudian proposed the concepts of inferiority complex and overcompensation?

Alfred Adler.

Name the five traits in the Five-Factor Model (Big Five).

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

What does Bandura’s reciprocal determinism describe?

The mutual influence of person, behavior, and environment on each other.

Explain locus of control as proposed by Rotter.

Belief about whether outcomes are controlled internally (by one’s actions) or externally (by chance or outside factors).

What additional trait does the HEXACO model add to the Big Five?

Honesty–Humility.

Which personality assessment consists of 10 ambiguous inkblots?

Rorschach Inkblot Test.

Define the Barnum effect.

Tendency to accept vague, general personality descriptions as uniquely applicable to oneself.

What is the primary developmental task in Erikson’s stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion?

Forming a coherent personal identity during adolescence.

Describe object permanence and its developmental stage.

Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight; achieved in Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage (0-2 yrs).

During which Piagetian stage do children show conservation of quantity?

Concrete Operational stage (7-11 yrs).

Which parenting style combines high responsiveness with high demands and is linked to positive outcomes?

Authoritative parenting.

What attachment style shows distress when the caregiver leaves and comfort upon return?

Secure attachment.

Define theory of mind.

Ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others and understand that they differ.

What is the marshmallow test designed to measure?

Delayed gratification and self-control in children.

According to socioemotional selectivity theory, how do social networks change in older adulthood?

They shrink, but remaining relationships are closer and more satisfying.

What psychological crisis characterizes middle adulthood in Erikson’s model?

Generativity vs. Stagnation.

Define menopause.

Complete cessation of a woman’s menstrual cycle, marking the end of reproductive capability.

What term describes adult children returning to live with parents?

Boomerang kids.

Which longitudinal Harvard study highlighted the importance of relationships for longevity and happiness?

Harvard Study of Adult Development.

What cognitive ability (fluid or crystallized) tends to decline more with age?

Fluid intelligence.

In Piaget’s Preoperational stage, what is egocentrism?

Inability to see a situation from another person’s perspective.

What hormone from the stomach triggers strong hunger signals?

Ghrelin.

Define proactive interference.

Older information obstructs the recall of newer information.

What is motivated forgetting?

Intentional or unconscious suppression of unpleasant or threatening memories.

Which theory of intelligence views it as malleable through effort?

Incremental theory (Dweck).

What are intrinsic versus extrinsic rewards?

Intrinsic arise internally (e.g., satisfaction); extrinsic come from external sources (e.g., money).

Which emotional component is processed heavily in the amygdala?

Detection and initiation of emotional responses, especially fear.

Name one factor that predicts job performance across many occupations.

Conscientiousness from the Big Five.

What does SAME (Somatovisceral Afference Model of Emotion) propose?

Different levels of bodily specificity require varying cognitive processing to yield feelings, bridging James–Lange and Schachter–Singer theories.

What is confabulation?

Unintended false recollection of episodic memories.

How does stereotype lift differ from stereotype threat?

Positive stereotypes about one’s group enhance performance (lift), while negative stereotypes impair it (threat).

Which hormone pair is linked to pair-bonding and long-term attachment?

Oxytocin and Vasopressin.

What is the DSM-5 criterion for a personality disorder regarding duration?

An enduring, inflexible pattern starting in adolescence or early adulthood and stable over time.

Name the three clusters of DSM-5 personality disorders.

Cluster A (odd/eccentric), Cluster B (dramatic/emotional), Cluster C (anxious/fearful).

What is the main feature of antisocial personality disorder?

Persistent disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others with lack of remorse.

Define temperament.

Early-appearing, biologically based tendencies in emotional reactivity and self-regulation.

Which research design studies different age groups at one time point?

Cross-sectional study.

What is longitudinal research?

Following the same individuals over time to observe developmental changes.

Explain the concept of cognitive load.

The total amount of mental effort being used in working memory at a given time.

What is the central executive in working memory responsible for?

Allocating attention and coordinating the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

How does sleep enhance memory consolidation?

Reduces interference and promotes neural processes that stabilize and integrate memories.

What is a mnemonic and give an example.

A strategy to link new information to well-known material to aid recall (e.g., acronyms like HOMES for the Great Lakes).