democracy and participation

what is democracy?

demos kracy = rule by the people

all citizens are equally entitled to participate in decisions/policies

universal suffrage

• rights for all adults to vote

• equal franchise act 1928

political participation

involvement of citizens in politics through voting, strikes, protests, pressure groups, canvassing etc

legitimacy

right to rule/have power

features of uk democracy

• regular, free, fair elections

• MPs held accountable to electorate

• PM accountable to parliament

• multi party system

• bicameral (HOC/HOL)

• rights

• representative dem w/element of direct

devolution

passing out/devolving some power to other constituent nations of UK e.g. Scotland, Wales

parliamentary democracy

executive (pm) is accountable to parliament

direct democracy

citizens themselves make political decisions rather than politicians e.g. in referendums

representative democracy

citizens vote for representatives (MPs) to make political decisions on their behalf

representatives held accountable at next election

pros of direct democracy

+ genuine form of democracy, continuous / participation = better informed/more knowledgeable citizens → increased turnout (2014 scottish indy ref 85% / 2016 brexit = 72%)

+ returns power to people, referendums → reforms that would be unlikely under rep dem (75% of mps = remain / only 48% of electorate)
+ legitimacy/political stability achieved

cons of direct democracy

- not good for complex decisions / over-simplify issues (no consensus on brexit terms, not as simple as remain / leave)

- only reflects majority / problematic when results are close (brexit)

- e-petitions etc → illusion of democracy without meaningful influence

pros of representative democracy

+ representatives can be more experienced/think about wider picture + are held accountable

+ consider minority views / referendums = majority views

+ reps have more time to consider decisions

cons of rep dem

- relies on good conduct of MPs = many scandals (2019-2024, 20 mps suspended / resigned over misconduct)

- legitimacy of reps = very low turnout (2024 = 57.9% lowest since 2001)

- FPTP = unrepresentative

- reps need to remain popular, avoid necessary reforms unpopular with influential groups (public accounts committee - increased adult social care, neither party has increased taxes / cuts to fund it)

delegate model

rep votes in parliament how their constituents would - carrier of their views

trustee/burkean model

rep applies their own judgement in light of facts, even if voters would have acted differently

participation crisis

crisis in citizen involvement in politics due to lack of interest - undermines legitimacy of elected institutions

arguments that there is a participation crisis

• long term decline in voter turnout in general elections/referendums (2024 under 60% for first time since 2001)

• long term decline in party membership since 1950s (cons 1950 = 2.8 mill / 2019 180,000)

• decline in membership/power of trade unions

• new social movements undermines participation - pressure groups

• individual participation (e-petitions / social media) = shallow, low effort, not as good as voting / joining party

arguments that there is not a participation crisis

• higher number of chances to vote, (turnout in referendums 85% 2014 scottish indy / 72% brexit)

• surge in party membership since 2013, more engaged than historically

• many more single issue groups

• new forms of political engagement are replacing voting/party membership

• individual politics = engagement in innovative ways (e-petitions, political consumerism)

democratic deficit

flaw in democratic process where lack of participation/trust in political system means decisions are made by people who lack legitimacy

eg of referendums in uk

• 2016 brexit (52% leave / 48% remain on 72% turnout)

• 1997 scottish parliament (74% yes on 63% turnout)

• 1998 good friday (71% yes on 81% turnout)

• 2011 AV ref (68% no on 42% turnout)

• 2014 scottish indy (45% yes, 55% no on 85% turnout)

pros of referendums

• legitimise major constitutional change (devolution / independence, brexit)

• power to the people, make decisions directly → increases political awareness / education of voters (high turnout)

• clear outcomes = resolve political arguments / disputes

cons of referendums

• challenge parliamentary sovereignty, public > elected representatives (brexit = complex issue, public not informed enough)

• manipulation → wording / influential political figures / otehr factors not to do with outcome (2011 av → boycott against lib dems)

arguments for reforms to system

• more direct involvement of public in politics (more referendums, initiatives) = higher levels of engagement/participation

• automatic voter reg = all citizens ready/able to vote = increased participation

• voting/electoral reforms to fptp will increase participation

• institutional reforms (HOL/devolved bodies) needed to tackle dem def

arguments against reforms to system

• more direct democracy could increase political apathy

• fraud/accuracy/cost of automatic reg

• voting/electoral reform may not increase participation

• institutional reforms may increase opposition to elected institutions/weaken parliament

3 reform acts in 19th century

• enfranchised all male property owners

• enfranchised all settled men in boroughs

• enfranchised all male house owners in entire uk

3 representation of the people acts in 20th century

• 1918 = abolished all property qualifications for men/enfranchising married women over 30 with houses

• 1928 = all women over 21 can vote

• 1969 = lowered voting age from 21-18

suffragists / suffragettes extension of franchise

• SUFFRAGISTS: non-violent methods, peaceful demonstrations, petitions, lobbying MPs (millicent fawcett)

• SUFFRAGETTES: militant tactics, attract publicity, disrupted political meetings / attacked institutions, hunger strikes (emily davidson king’s horse epsom derby)

2014 Scotland Act

lowered voting age from 18-16

arguments for votes at 16

• solution to participation crisis (75% of 16-17 voted in 2014 scottish indy ref)

• more likely to develop lifelong habit if encouraged to vote at school

• have other legal rights (join armed forces, have sex, driver’s license)

• give them a say on issues that directly affect them (uni tuition fees)

arguments against votes at 16

• influenced by political views of parents / guardians / social media

• limited compulsory political education in uk → ill-informed decisions

• lack necessary life experience / maturity to vote

what is a pressure group?

organised group of people that aims to influence the policies or actions of government

sectional / interest group

• promotes interests of particular group / section of society

• TUs, BMA, NFU

causal group

• pressure group that is based on shared values, ideas, principles / around particular cause

• just stop oil, greenpeace
  

insider group

pressure group that has access/consults with the government

NFU

outsider group

pressure group that is not consulted by government/doesn’t want to be involved with government

extinction rebellion

methods used by pressure groups

• direct action (protest, marches etc)

• lobbying (persuading politicians to join their campaign)

• media attention (jso 2022, blocking roads / stopping premier league matches)

• e-petitions / celebrity endorsements - 2020 marcus rashford FSM campaign / people’s vote - revoke article 50 e-petition

pros of pressure groups

• opps for informal political participation (400,000 ppl marched to support people’s vote 2019)

• represent underrepresented minorities (2020 BLM / stonewall)

• expertise in policy formulation (Stonewall worked with New Labour to equalise age of consent for gay/straight people to 16 (Sexual Offences Act 2000 – opposed by Lords)

cons of pressure groups

• disproportionate influence

• spread of misinformation (anti-vax pressure group health advisory and recovery team - accused of spreading conspiracies about COVID)

• direct action → disruption / police action (extinction rebellion 2022, 8 members arrested after they glued themselves to parts of parliamentary estate)

factors affecting success of pressure groups

• resources

• leadership

• public support

• govt attitudes

resources

• large membership → more money from subscriptions → have staff / organise publicity = more influence

• RSPCA 1600 employees / 1000s of volunteers = ££ for advertising

leadership

• experienced / clear leadership

• marcus rashford - public figurehead / leader, effective FSM campaign

public support

• public opinion, usually better if peaceful / respectful methods used

• JSO = alienate supporters / public

govt attitudes

• chooses groups it agrees with for advice

• NFU / DEFRA links → £45 mill to farmers / importance in 2013 badger cull

think tank

group of experts who provide ideas, advice and policy proposals on economic/social problems

iea (institute of economic affairs) / LW = fabian society / RW = adam smith institute

2022 truss / kwarteng disastrous mini-budget - influenced by neo-liberal IEA → deregulation / tax breaks for rich

lobbyists

• person or organisation that seeks to form close relationships / influence politicians

• 4000 people / £2 billion / year

• scott benton former mp - caught in undercover sting operation 2023 → offering to lobby on behalf of fake gambling company (leaking info / asking qus in parliament)

• revolving door concerns - 170 former ministers taking up jobs relating to policy areas they used to manage

corporations

• disproportionate influence → improper behaviour

• financial firm greensill capital hired former pm cameron / used private contacts to set up meetings w/senior govt minsters / persuade them to give greensill a COVID loan

• 2021 randox health - paid cons mp owen paterson, lobbying on their behalf, £500,000 → won govt contracts worth £777 mill during COVID

• uk govt dropped health push after lobbying by ultra-processed food firms (nestlé / coca-cola)

individual rights

• rights enjoyed by individuals

• eg free speech

collective rights

• rights enjoyed by society as a whole

• eg right to safety from criminals

magna carta 1215

• nobles forced king john I to sign charter - agreed not to impose taxes without their consent

• right to a fair trial

bill of rights 1689

• established principles of free speech / elections within parliament → parliamentary privilege

HRA 1998

• incorporated ECHR into UK law

• allowed British citizens to have ECHR-related rights cases heard in UK courts

freedom of information act 2000

• allowed citizens right to access info held by public bodies

equality act 2010

• protected people from discrimination in workplace / society

same sex marriage act

• 2013

• extended right to marry to same-sex couples

coronavirus act 2020

• suspension of individual rights (freedom of movement / assembly) during lockdown

• aimed to protect collective rights by limiting spread of covid

police, crime, sentencing and courts act (PCSC) 2022

• police can place restrictions on protests they think is public nuisance

• starting / finishing times, noise limits / limits on amount of ppl

• gives police more power

• erodes right to freedom of assembly / right to protest

public order act 2023

• allowed police to arrest protesters on suspicion they might cause undue disorder

• erodes right to freedom of assembly

• used to arrest 6 members of republic (anti-monarchy pressure group) before charles III’s coronation → lack of proof / only suspicion

how are rights protected in uk?

• flexible constitution → updated more easily (2013 same-sex marriage act, referendum needed in NI)

• civil liberty pressure groups (stonewall / liberty)

• media campaigns

• court rulings (2023 rwanda act → not a safe country / against human rights)

how are rights not protected in uk?

• individual > collective

• 2023 SC ruled rwanda policy unlawful → rwanda not safe destination for deportations → SC failed to consider collective rights of society / individual rights of asylum seekers

• 2023 gender recognition bill / 2024 SC defined legal definition of woman as someone biologically born a woman, excludes trans women → allowing self-identification = progress to trans rights