Police And Society Exam 1

Professor Jason Silver

Law Enforcement

the police function of controlling crime by intervening in situations in which the law has clearly been violated and the police need to identify and apprehend the guilty person

order maintenance

The police function of preventing behavior that disturbs or threatens to disturb the public peace or that involves face-to-face conflict between two or more people. In such situations, the police exercise discretion in deciding whether a law has been broken.

Service

Committing to helping the community, possibly by saving cats from trees, or helping pedestrians cross the street.

WHAT MAKES POLICING AS AN INSTITUTION DISTINCT FROM OTHER GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS?

Police are allowed to use deadly weapons and deadly force and the public is not allowed to resist. What makes policing distinct from other governments is that policing is a public way to maintain order due to the fact that they can be called at all times and have the access to use any kind of force needed.

REACTIVE POLICING

The police take action after the crime occurs. Turning the area into a crime scene and investigating what had occurred. Examples calling the police after a robbery

PROACTIVE POLICING

A police department policy that emphasizes stopping crimes before they occur, rather than reacting to crimes that have already occurred. Highway patrol is an example

WHAT WAS A TYPICAL POLICE SHIFT LIKE IN THE POLICE SERVICES STUDY? WHAT KINDS OF THINGS HAPPENED OFTEN, AND WHAT KINDS OF THINGS DIDN'T HAPPEN OFTEN?

Typically, police officers spend most of their time patrolling neighborhoods, answering phone calls and interacting with the public. Things like security checks and follow-ups typically don't happen during a regular police shift. Typically police officers spend their time checking up nearby locations that are red hot with crimes, like projects, apartments etc...

Unassigned time

"The police automatically take care of anything that isn't handled by some other entity." The hours police officers spend between calls roaming neighborhoods, having a food break, or filling out paperwork are sometimes referred to by police as "unassigned" time and are not included in data on calls for service.

WHAT WAS A TYPICAL ENCOUNTER WITH THE PUBLIC LIKE IN THE POLICE SERVICES STUDY? WHAT KINDS OF THINGS HAPPENED OFTEN, AND WHAT KINDS OF THINGS DIDN'T HAPPEN OFTEN?

HOW DID POLICE SPEND THEIR TIME ACCORDING TO THE NYT ARTICLE?

HAS POLICING CHANGED MUCH OVER THE PAST 40 (OR EVEN 60) YEARS?

No, not really, police are still told to patrol, and there continues to be a low amount of violence necessary within policing.

WHAT ASPECTS OF POLICING ARE MOSTLY THE SAME EVERYWHERE, AND WHAT MIGHT BE DIFFERENT? HOW IS RURAL POLICING DIFFERENT FROM URBAN POLICING?

Day to day duties like patrolling, paperwork, traffic stops, interacting with the public etc., are mostly the same everywhere but the time spent doing these activities may differ. Rural and urban policing are different because in urban areas, police may be more present outside and patrolling more compared to rural areas.

Random Patrol

a patrol strategy that relies on police officers monitoring a certain area with the goal of detecting crimes in progress or preventing crime due to their presence

Standard model of policing

Random patrol across all parts of the community, Rapid response to emergency calls for service ( 911 calls), general applied intensive enforcement and arrest policies, generalized investigations of crime, increasing the size of police agencies

Kin Policing

Everyone has the same authority and responsibility to enforce the rules. Members of a group may band together to enforce the rules against one deviant member

WHY DOES KIN POLICING BREAK DOWN IN A COMPLEX SOCIETY?

It breaks down in a complex society because kin policing the idea that an attack on one member of the group was tantamount to an attack on the entire group.

WHAT WERE URBAN COHORTS AND WHAT DID THEY DO?

Ancient Rome and the urban cohorts of ancient Rome were implemented by Augustus to counterbalance the enormous power of the Praetorian Guawszx rd, which was the military in Rome at the time. Their sole purpose was to serve the city of Rome as a police force.

WHAT WAS THE NIGHT WATCH SYSTEM AND WHAT DID IT DO?

The night watch system was a sheriff and constable appointed system that heavily relied on volunteers as their primary force. This system's purpose was to focus on quelling crime in their communities late at night in England.

DESCRIBE THE MAIN PROBLEMS WITH THE NIGHT WATCH SYSTEM:

The main problem with the night watch system is that there were primarily volunteers who only did it because they would get paid to cover for someone else or as punishment. There was no actual collective objective to protect or serve compared to modern-day policing.

Early policing

Originated in England as a night watch. The crime was not a priority; members of the public volunteered or voluntold, appointed sheriffs and constables

Metropolitan Police Act

Created in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel, the first successful bill to create a permanent, public police force

Northern US

Pre-1800s: Night Watch system, replaced by modern police departments

Southern US

Pre- 1800s: slave patrols (part of the court system), Became modern police departments

Political Era

1840's to 1920's: the period when police agencies were first established to provide a unified law enforcement force in the major American cities

Reform Era of Policing

Early 1900s to the 1960s. A direct reaction to the politics of before; took the form of police professionalism and antipolitics.

Community Policing Era

1970s-present

The current "era" of American policing, placing crime control on an equal footing with forging community partnerships and allowing communities greater ability to control their own affairs, incorporating crime prevention and crime analysis into an overall community effort to reduce crime and disorder.

Civil Rights movement

Police forces are used to Counter political unrest. Police violence increased tension, resulting in protests and riots. Inspired presidential commissions to examine the problem. Professional era departments determined to be part of the problem (and ineffective)

WHEN WE TALK ABOUT POLICE AGENCIES IN THE US, WHAT DO WE MEAN?

Police Agencies are the departments that fall under law enforcement (organization). Each department has a different task and focus in regards to their duty/service.

WHAT'S IN THESE TABLES AND WHAT DOES IT TELL US ABOUT POLICE AGENCIES IN THE US?

These tables show us employment within US police agencies and how many officers/personnel make up these agencies. Overall the tables show us that the majority of agencies in the US are small however 70% of officers are employed by bigger agencies. (i.e Newark PD 1,033 officers)

EXPLAIN WHAT THIS MEANS; GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF AGENCIES WITH JURISDICTIONS THAT DIFFER BECAUSE OF GEOGRAPHY

Municipal Police are limited to their prospective city therefore cannot enforce the law or provide service to their neighboring city. (i.e Newark PD cannot makes stops in Montclair)

EXPLAIN WHAT THIS MEANS; GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF AGENCIES WITH JURISDICTIONS THAT DIFFER BECAUSE OF LAWS ENFORCED

For example, Municipal Police differs from Federal law enforcement due to the fact that municipal police focus more on orderly conduct within their city, such as traffic stops and proactive policing. Compared to federal law enforcement where their duties are to react to the crimes that break federal crimes (much bigger crimes, i.e murder, fraud, trafficking)

Municipal PD

Law-enforcement, order maintenance, service orientations, reactive and proactive

Federal Law Enforcement

Law enforcement agency under the control of the executive branch of the federal government. Reactive

Sheriff's Office

These agencies are responsible for law enforcement in the unincorporated areas of the county, and traditionally the county jail, and civil processing. Civil processing involves law enforcement's assistance to the court system, which can include serving subpoenas, enforcing eviction notices, and providing court bailiffs. Reactive and proactive

HOW IS A POLICE AGENCY IS AN ORGANIZATION UNDER THIS DEFINITION?

Police Agency is an organization under this definition because they are a group of people who work together in order to create rules in order to maintain maintenance

Divides labor

This means that everyone within the organization has a certain role and task that they play within the organization

Coordinates task

This means that people within the organization are all responsible for completing duties

Differentiation

refers to three different aspects that decide how tasks will be divided (functional), how positions are specialized (occupational), and the level/ ranks in agencies (vertical)

Functional

How tasks are divided

Occupational

How much positions are specialized

Vertical

How many level/ranks

Formalization

How much is behavior determined by written rules and policies

Centralization

How much are important decisions made by one person/a small group

Administration

How many positions in the organization are focused on running the organization

Organizational Structure

have an impact on policing because there are many things that factor into the way in which an officer might act or handle a situation which depends on the area in which they're in and the way they feel within the moment

HOW CAN A LARGE URBAN POLICE DEPARTMENT BE DESCRIBED USING THESE TERMS? WHY DO LARGE URBAN POLICE DEPARTMENTS TEND TO HAVE THESE CHARACTERISTICS?

Large police departments tend to have high differentiation, high formalization, high centralization, and high administration because large departments have large numbers of sworn officers and non-sworn personnel that need to be administered over

WHAT ARE THE MAIN ISSUES ARISING FROM THESE ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS?

The main issues arising from organizational characteristics are that it makes the organization become less organized or coordinated because there are people who are isolated from what they are supposed to be doing and people not be placed in the right positions that they deserve

WHY ISN'T CRIME A "BOTTOM LINE" FOR POLICE?

Crime isn't a "bottom line" for police because police organizations don't receive more money for every suspect that they catch and they don't hire more officers when more crime is committed compared to business who have a bottom line in which their business continues to grow the more they sell

WHAT IS INSTITUTIONAL THEORY AND WHAT DOES IT TELL US ABOUT HOW POLICE ORGANIZATIONS ACTUALLY RUN?

How Government organizations actually function. Businesses have a “bottom line”; government organizations (institutions) don’t. Institutions succeed when their policies, procedures, etc. \n are seen by stakeholders as right—even if they’re \n ineffective. \n Institutions have “loosely coupled” policies and practices \n • Policies and procedures on the books must please stakeholders \n • Actual practices must get the job done

EXPLAIN HOW THE ADOPTION OF COMMUNITY POLICING PROVIDES AN EXAMPLE OF INSTITUTIONAL THEORY IN PRACTICE

Community policing leads to officers connecting more with their communities this leads to more trust and respect. Even if this is ineffective which it possibly can be considering community policing does not equal less crime, it is seen as right to stakeholders.

WHAT IS AN OCCUPATIONAL CULTURE? WHAT SORTS OF OCCUPATIONS HAVE A CULTURE? HOW DOES OCCUPATIONAL CULTURE SHAPE WHAT WE THINK ABOUT APPROPRIATE GRADING PRACTICES?

The generally accepted actions, practices, rules of conduct and behavior that is shared by members of the same occupation which often is reflected in their language, values, attitudes, beliefs, customs, etc. Occupational culture shapes what we think about appropriate greeting practices because it leads to the professor is being able to decide what makes an A or an F paper. There are no guidelines for professors on how they should grade, so it is the professor's choice to grade harshly or not.

HOW ARE STRESS AND POLICE CULTURE RELATED? HOW/WHY IS STRESS AN ISSUE FOR POLICE OFFICERS?

Stress and police culture are related by the cumulative stressors of police work to the mind-set of us (police officers) vs them (the public). Stress is an issue for police officers as Occupational stressors (danger, coercive authority) lead to "maintain the edge" and suspicion attitudes, Organizational stressors (low oversight, ambiguous role) lay low attitude or a "Crime Fighter" mind-set. These stressors push officers to use Police Culture leading to: Using more force, More complaints, Less willing to do community policing, less interested in using procedural justice, covering up or engaging in misconduct.

Occupational Stressor

When dealing with the public, police officers feel danger

Danger as an occupational stressor

Danger is an occupational stressor because within the police force, violence is always unpredicted and can happen at any time. Whereas, police officers put themselves in danger every time they clock into work which can lead to stress because they never know what their work day may entail. Being in danger places individuals in a stressed state of mind. Danger is an occupational stressor because it is unpredictable when it can occur and there can potentially be a very violent incident, which can result in death or serious injury.

Coercive Authority

is having to be prepared to use force and you aren't able to back down. It is an occupational stressor because someone can never be prepared for what comes along in the job which can be difficult.

negative interactions

can be an occupational stressors because the relationship between community and the police is an important factor in getting along and not spreading hate.

Organizational stressor

is defined as the level of environmental demand that can disrupt or enhance an individual's physiological or psychological state and change the normal mode of functioning." This is stress that a workplace/setting may bring them.

Punitive oversight

when a police officer is expected to be an active member of law enforcement and not make mistakes. This can be a stressor because they are more likely to be recognized for their mistakes, rather than for their good work. May lead to lay low or CYA (cover your ass)

ambiguous roles

falls under an occupational stressor as it leaves officers a lack of clarity, certainty and/or predictability on what is expected of them in regards to behavior on the job. May lead to lay low or CYA (cover your ass)

HOW DO SUSPICION AND "MAINTAINING THE EDGE" ARISE FROM OCCUPATIONAL STRESSORS?

Both suspicion and maintaining the edge definitely can arise a occputational within an officer. Officers always have to "read a room" when stepping outside within their community. As well as they feel the need to always have a suspicion.

Suspicion

a feeling or thought that something is possible, likely, or true.

Maintain the edge

Is the function of danger. Officers come across danger almost every day with the general public. This or well has to do with reading people/or a situation.

HOW DOES POLICE CULTURE RESULT IN AN "US VS THEM" ORIENTATION?

Police Culture leads to a sense of trust or fraternity between officers. With a multitude of stressors towards the public, Police Culture gives off the interpretation that the only people you can trust is your fellow officer with the insecurity that anyone and everyone can cause you (the officer) harm at any moment.

WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF POLICE CULTURE ON HOW POLICE INTERACT WITH MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC?

POLICE CULTURE IMPACTS ON HOW POLICE INTERACT WITH MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC BECAUSE PEOPLE TEND TO HAVE THEIR OWN PERSPECTIVE OF THE POLICE WHETHER IS A NEGATIVE OR A GOOD ONE.(Bias can be a factor)

screening out

process of identifying police applicants who are unqualified and removing them from consideration, while leaving all those who minimally qualify in the applicant pool

Screening in

process of identifying police applicants who are the best-qualified candidate for the applicant pool

SUMMARIZE A TYPICAL HIRING PROCESS AND EXPLAIN HOW IT IS A FORM OF SCREENING OUT

A person must fit physical, mental, and age requirements. They go through a variety of tests, schooling and interviews. Such as the police academy and interviews with the department. A background check is also conducted but minor offenses such as misdemeanors would not have much of an effect on the hiring process. A candidate who does not meet these recruitment requirements would be screened out.

Stress Model

when the police academy instructors are to apply maximum level stress and animosity towards recruits as if they were in the military as they partake in training to become police officers. Stress models usually focus towards combat training and working in physical strength while trying to overcome mental barriers that could prohibit you to complete your job/task.

Non stress model

is when instructors are less aggressive and are more compassionate and cam towards recruits with more focus leaning towards the learning of laws and the schooling aspect of policing.

WHAT TYPE OF ACADEMY WAS THIS? WHAT SORTS OF THINGS DID IT EMPHASIZE?

This academy was a stress model as recruits were under extreme conditions and strict rules that they needed to follow

WHAT KINDS OF TOPICS GET THE MOST ATTENTION AT POLICE ACADEMIES? WHAT KINDS OF TOPICS GET LESS ATTENTION?

Victimizing crimes such as victim response, hate/bias crimes or sexual harrassment get less attention than topics such as de-escalation or proper weapon usage like non-lethal weaponry.

WHAT DO POLICE ACADEMIES DO A GOOD JOB OF PREPARING RECRUITS FOR, AND WHAT MIGHT THEY NOT DO A GOOD JOB OF PREPARING RECRUITS FOR? WHAT ARE SOME WAYS THAT POLICE ACADEMIES MIGHT REINFORCE POLICE CULTURE?

The academy does a good job of preparing you for violent scenarios and also non-violent scenarios such as wellness checks. It does not do a good job of preparing a future officer for what mental challenges they may face. Academies reinforce police culture by using the coping mechanisms which are occupational or organizational.

Female vs Male police officers

Evidence suggests few differences in attitudes and behavior \n • POLICEwomen vs. policeWOMEN?

Colored vs white police officers

Evidence mixed on whether race makes a difference in attitudes \n and policing practices \n • Double marginality: experiences as “outsiders” in police \n departments and communities of color

WHY MIGHT RACE AND GENDER NOT MAKE MUCH DIFFERENCE IN POLICING? WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR EFFORTS TO CHANGE POLICING PRACTICES THROUGH RECRUITMENT?

Because they are all able to accomplish the same goal and all are capable of doing the same job. The implications are to be more open in the hiring process and not discriminate based off of color or gender.

HOW DOES COLLEGE EDUCATION IMPACT POLICING? WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR EFFORTS TO CHANGE POLICING PRACTICES BY REQUIRING MORE EDUCATION?

It is shown that if you have a college degree you are less likely to use force, satisfaction of the job, and you have less favorable views about the management of the job. Having a college education as a police officer is proven that they won't really enjoy the job as much as officers without an education. It is expected that the officers are less likely to enjoy the job even more if more education is required.

Force

The amount of effort required by the police to compel compliance by an unwilling subject. The amount of force necessary is subjective from each officer

Verbal or physical

Verbal is to give directions or commands such as telling the individual to pull over or telling someone to put their hands up while physical is physical contact such as chasing pinning someone down to the ground and tackling them

IN WHAT WAYS ARE USE OF FORCE POWERS EXTENSIVE?

when unreasonable forces violate the 4th amendment which are searches and seizures. Forces must be objective and reasonable without regard to their underlying intent or motivation. The use of more force than a skilled police officer would find necessary to use that in that particular situation.

Verbal

Directions- Citizen asking a Police Officer where something is located - "Please stand over there." \\n Commands- A police officer commanding citizens to put their hands up - Actually giving orders.

Less lethal weapons

Impact weapons- Bats, Mace \n Chemical spray- Pepper Spray \n Conducted Energy Devices (CEDs)- Taser - (particularly used when an unarmed person is not following commands/resisting)

Lethal force

Guns particularly used in shoot outs or a form of protection for police officers in a threatening situation (ex: House raids, drug busts, shoot outs, etc.)

Use of Force in Practice

Establish control of a situation - Pepper spray during riots \n Protect self or others - Arresting someone of a DUI to protect self and others on the road \n Make an arrest - Detaining a person who is stealing from a store

HOW OFTEN IS FORCE USED; WHAT PATTERN DO WE SEE RE: RACIAL DISPARITY; WHAT TYPES OF FORCE ARE MOST COMMON

Force is not used that often but when used it's mostly used on black individuals. Verbal force and less lethal weapons are most common,

HOW IS USE OF FORCE CONCENTRATED AMONG A FEW OFFICERS?

Most officers who have forced complaints have multiple ones while other officers who have received no forced complaints often use force when necessary. Officers with multiple force complaints indicate that they escalate the situation rather than de-escalating on multiple occasions

HOW COMMON IS LETHAL FORCE, AND WHAT IS THE PATTERN RE: RACIAL DISPARITIES?

Definitely common and the racial disparity shows more in black and hispanic/latino men, whereas the number for white men is significantly lower. The pattern seen is that it isn't seen as much with white men when compared to other races.

GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF WHEN LETHAL FORCE WOULD BE LEGAL VS. ILLEGAL ACCORDING TO THE CONSTITUTION

This standard basically means that lethal force is only necessary when the officer senses that the suspect may pose a threat to the officer or other people, and only then. An example when lethal force would be legal would be when the suspect is armed and isn't cooperating, showing menacing, life threatening behavior. An example when lethal force would be illegal would be when the suspect isn't armed, is cooperating with the officer, isn't posing any threat, and the officer uses lethal force regardless.

ARE DECISIONS ABOUT USE OF FORCE IMPACTED BY SIMILAR FACTORS AS OTHER DECISIONS MADE BY Police:

Decisions about the use of force are impacted by similar factors as other decisions made by police such as legal factors, extralegal force and racial biases.

Population level

Involves on a larger scale; involving both lethal and nonlethal forces

Individual level

usually non lethal force

racial biases

Plays a lot and how one uses force often times usage of lethal forms of violence is used even though a crime is considered lesser than crime

WHAT DOES THE SUPREME COURT SAY ABOUT WHEN FORCE SHOULD BE CONSIDERED UNCONSTITUTIONAL AND THEREFORE EXCESSIVE? IN A PARTICULAR CASE, HOW WOULD IT BE DETERMINED WHETHER FORCE WAS EXCESSIVE BY THIS STANDARD?

The Supreme Court would deem force unconstitutional and excessive only when it isn't supported with genuine reason rather than relying on a simple, quick, "gut" feeling. A particular case would be an officer using too much force on a suspect simply because they're a suspect.

WHEN DOES KLOCKARS (1996) SAY FORCE SHOULD BE CONSIDERED EXCESSIVE?

such excessive force should be used in a particular situation that is how you can tell that a police officer is highly skilled if they can make that proper judgment.

EXPLAIN USE OF FORCE CONTINUUMS; DESCRIBE WHAT THEY USUALLY INCLUDE

set the guideline or the principles for the amount of force that should be used by a police officer. It is set up on a scale from least severe to most severe. This sets the standard as to what force is viewed as "okay" and what is viewed as being excessive. This includes not only guidelines but it also accounts for citizen resistance

Graham v. Connor

Focuses on 4 important aspects to consider when deciding what amount of force can be used in a given situation; The crime severity (how severe was the crime, is it viewed as a felony or is it viewed as a misdemeanor), the threat to safety (does the crime that was committed harm society in a large manner or was it just a little infraction), is the offender of the crime trying to resist cooperation with the police or trying to flee the scene of the crime?) This type of force protects the public the most as it prevents unreasonable searches and seizures

"Skilled Officer"

This type of force gives the officer the right to act in a way they see fit, allows for them to use the amount of force they feel is necessary to the situation they are placed in. This type of force gives the officer/police the most power. Only uses force when the individual finds necessary, slim to no complaints on this officer for excessive usings of force.

Continuum

Force that is mainly focused and revolves around rules and guidelines that have been set by expectations within the department. This type of force gives the police department the most oversight. Excessive force. "Use of more force than a highly skilled police officer would find necessary to use in that particular situation."

Standard policing

generally applied intensive enforcement and arrest policies, generalized investigation and crime, rapid response to emergency calls of service.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A POPULATION LEVEL DISPARITY AND AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL DISPARITY

The difference between a population level and an individual level is that population level disparity is the differences of use of lethal force and nonlethal with race and individual there are large racial biases in lesser forms of force)

HOW DO INDIVIDUAL DECISIONS BY POLICE OFFICERS CONTRIBUTE TO RACIAL DISPARITIES? HOW DO RACIAL DISPARITIES ARISE EVEN WHEN POLICE OFFICERS WOULD TREAT THE SAME INDIVIDUAL EQUALLY IN A PARTICULAR SITUATION REGARDLESS OF RACE?

Individual decisions by police officers contribute to racial disparities because they create more contact between marginalized racial groups. Racial disparities arise even when police treat all people equally regardless of race because of internalized biases.