AP US Government & Politics

Affirmative Action

A policy designed to correct the effects of past discrimination; requirement by law that positive steps be taken to increase the number of minorities in businesses, schools, colleges, and labor.

Supreme Court Cases:

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)

Agenda Setting

The process of forming the list of matters that policymakers intend to address.

Ambassador

A personal representative appointed by the head of a nation to represent that nation in matters of diplomacy.

Amicus Curiae Brief

Friend of the court; interested groups may be invited to file legal briefs supporting or rejecting arguments of the case.

Anti-Federalists

Opposed the adoption of U.S. Constitution because it gave too much power to the national government at the expense of the state governments and it lacked a bill of rights.

Key Individuals:

Patrick Henry

George Mason

Richard Henry Lee

Appeasement

The act of making concessions to a political or military rival.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review decisions of inferior (lower) courts; see Original Jurisdiction.

Appropriations

Money used by Congress or a state legislature for a specific purpose.

Apportionment

Distribution of representatives among the states based on the population of each state.

Articles of Impeachment

The specific charges brought against a president or a federal judge by the House of Representatives.

At-large

Election of an officeholder by the voters of an entire governmental unit (e.g., a State or county) rather than by the voters of a district, a subdivision of that area.

Articles of Confederation

The first national constitution of the United States that created a government lasting from 1781 to 1789; replaced by the current Constitution.

Bills of Attainder

A legislative act, illegal without a judicial trial, that inflicts punishment on an individual or group for the purpose of suppressing that person or group.

Bipartisan

Politics that emphasizes cooperation between the major parties.

Blanket Primary

A nominating election in which voters may switch from one political party's primary to another on an office-to-office basis; see Direct Primary.

Block Grants

Federal grants to the states and local communities that are for general use in a broad area, such as community development.

Brief

Legal document submitted to the court setting forth the facts of a case and supporting a particular position.

Bureaucracy

Any large, complex administrative structure; a hierarchical organization with job specialization and complex rules.

Burger Court

The description given the United States Supreme Court from 1969 to 1986 (led by Chief Justice Warren Burger). It was expected that the "Burger Court" would become a conservative court under Warren Burger and reverse many of the liberal rulings of the earlier Warren Court.

Capital Punishment

The execution of an individual by the state as punishment for heinous offenses.

Constitutional Connection:

Eighth Amendment

Cabinet

Government departments headed by presidential appointees to help establish public policy and operate a specific policy area of governmental activity.

Casework

Assistance given to constituents by congressional members, answering questions or doing favors.

Categorical Grants

Federal grants to states and local communities that are earmarked for specific purposes only, such as pollution control, schools, or hospitals. Also known Grants-in-Aid.

Caucus

Locally held meeting in a state to select delegates who, in turn, will nominate candidates to political offices.

Caucus (Congressional)

An association of congressional members who advocate a political ideology, regional, ethnic, or economic interest.

Certificate

A method of putting a case before the United States Supreme Court; used when a lower court is not clear about the procedure or the rule of law that should apply in a given case and asks the Supreme Court to certify the answer to a specific question.

Checks and Balances

System of overlapping the powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, to permit each branch to check the actions of the others and thus no branch of government may dominate the other; see Separation of Powers.

Civil Law

That body of law relating to human conduct, including disputes between private persons and between private persons and government not covered by criminal law.

Civil Liberties

Guarantees of the safety of persons, opinions, and property from the arbitrary acts of government.

Civil Rights

Refers to positive acts of government that seek to make constitutional guarantees a reality for all; e.g., prohibition of discrimination.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

The legislative act that removed racial barriers in all places vested with a public interest.

Constitutional Connection:

Fourteenth Amendment

Fifteenth Amendment

Civil Service System

The system created by civil service laws by which many appointments to the federal bureaucracy are made; established under the Pendleton Act of 1883.

Class Action Suit

A lawsuit filed on behalf of a group of persons with a similar legal claim against a party or individual.

Clear and Present Danger Test

A doctrine adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States to determine under what circumstances limits can be placed on First Amendment freedoms of speech, press or assembly.

Supreme Court Cases:

Schenck v. United States (1919)

Abrams v. United States (1919)

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Closed Primary

Form of the direct primary in which only declared party members may vote; see Open Primary.

Cloture

Procedure that may be used to limit or end floor debate in a legislative body; requires a three-fifths vote of the Senate.

Comparable Worth

Holds that women should be paid salaries equal to men for equivalent job responsibilities and skills.

Coattail Effect

Influence that a popular candidate for a top office (e.g., President or governor) can have on the voters' support of other candidates of his/her party on the same ballot.

Commerce Power

Exclusive power of Congress to regulate interstate and foreign trade.

Committee Chairman

Member who heads a standing committee in a legislative body; selection relies heavily on party loyalty.

Committee of the Whole

A committee that consists of an entire legislative body; used for a procedure in which a legislative body expedites its business by resolving itself into a committee of itself.

Common Law

That body of law made up of generally accepted standards of rights and wrongs developed over centuries by judicial decisions rather than in written statutes.

Concurrent Jurisdiction

Power shared by federal and state courts to hear certain cases.

Concurrent Powers

Those powers which are exercised independently by both the national and state governments. Those powers shared by both levels of governments, i.e., state and national.

Examples:

Maintain law & order

Levy tax

Provide for the general welfare

Concurrent Resolution

Measure passed by both houses of a legislature that does not have the force of law nor require the chief executive's approval; often used to express the legislature's opinion or for internal rules or housekeeping.

Concurring Opinion

Written explanation of the views of one or more appellate judges who support a decision reached by majority of the court but disagree with the grounds for that decision.

Conference Committee

Temporary joint committee created to reconcile any differences between the two houses' versions of a bill.

Congressional Budget Office

Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president's Office of Management and Budget.

Congressional Districting

The process by which state legislatures draw congressional districts for states with more than one representatives; see Gerrymandering.

Congressional Oversight

Power used by Congress to gather information useful for the formation of legislation, review the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conduct investigations through committee hearings, and bring to the public's attention the need for public policy.

Consent of the Governed

A derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy, later adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence that puts the authority of the government in the people's hands.

Conservative

A person who believes government power, particularly in the economy, should be limited in order to maximize individual freedom; see also Liberal.

Constituents

All persons represented by a legislator or other elected officeholder.

Constitution

Body of fundamental law, setting out the basic principles, structures, processes, and functions of a government and placing limits upon its actions; may be written or unwritten.

Constitutional Courts

Federal courts created by Congress under Article II of the Constitution.

Examples:

Court of Appeals

U.S. Court of International Trade

Constitutional Law

Laws relating to the interpretation of the Constitution.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

A primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.

Continuing Resolution

Measure that, when signed by the President, allows an agency to function on the basis of appropriations made the prior year.

Continuous Body

Governing unit such as the Senate whose seats are never all up for election at the same time.

Convention Bump

An increase reflected in presidential preference polls immediately following a party's nominating convention.

Cooperative Federalism

Described as various levels of government which are seen as related parts of a single governmental system, characterized more by cooperation and shared functions than by conflict and competition; also called Marble Cake Federalism.

Court Packing

The act of placing members of the same political party on the bench so that opinion of the court will be consistent with that of the political party; associated with Franklin Roosevelt.

Creative Federalism

Developed during Lyndon Johnson's administration, it was characterized by the Great Society programs, which placed a major responsibility on federally funded programs.

Criminal Law

That body of law passed by both the federal and state governments, that defines crimes and provides for their punishment.

Critical (Realigning) Elections

An election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues.

Examples:

1800, 1828, 1860, 1896, 1932, 1964

Dealignment

Marks a period when a significant number of voters choose to no longer support a particular political party; see Crtitical Election.

De Facto Segregation

Segregation that exists "in fact," not as a result of laws or governmental actions, i.e., administered by the public; see de jure segregation, segregation.

Defendant

In a civil suit, the person against whom a court action is brought by the plaintiff; in a criminal case, the person charged with the crime.

Deficit

Yearly shortfall between revenue and spending.

Deficit Spending

Government practice of spending more than is taken in from taxes.

De Jure Segregation

Segregation that exists as a result of some law or governmental action.

Examples:

Jim Crow Laws

Delegate

Role played by elected representatives who vote the way their constituents would want them to, regardless of their own opinions.

Delegated Powers

Powers which are granted to, and exercised ONLY by the national government. The delegated powers are specifically listed in the U.S. Constitution at Articles I, II, III; also known as Expressed Powers.

Department

A major administrative unit with responsibility for a broad area of government operations; usually indicates a permanent national interest in that particular governmental function.

Deregulation

A policy promoting cutbacks in the amount of Federal regulation in specific areas of economic activity.

Desegregation

The removal of racial barriers either by legislative acts or by judicial action.

Deterrence

Basic feature of American foreign policy to maintain massive military strength in order to prevent any attack upon this country or its allies.

Devolution

An effort to shift responsibility of domestic programs to the states in order to decrease the size and activities of the federal government; associated with Ronald Reagan.

Diplomatic Immunity

Practice in international law under which ambassadors and other diplomatic officials have special privileges and are not subject to the laws of the state to which they are accredited.

Direct Action

Attempts to influence government by civil disobedience, and sometimes by militant or violent action.

Examples:

Demonstrations, marches, sit-ins, campus strikes, picketing

Direct Incitement Test

The advocacy of illegal action is protected by the First Amendment unless imminent action is intended and likely to occur.

Supreme Court Cases:

Brandenburg v Ohio (1969)

Direct Primary

The most widely used method of making nominations in American politics; an intra-party nominating election at which those who vote choose a party's candidates to run in the general election.

Direct Tax

A tax that must be paid by the person on whom it is levied.

Discharge Petition

A procedure to bring a bill to the floor of the legislative body when a committee has refused to report it.

Discretionary Spending

Spending set by the government through annual appropriations bills, including operating expenses and salaries of government employees.

Dissenting Opinion

Written explanation of the views of one or more judges who disagree with a decision reached by a majority of the court.

District Courts

Lowest level of federal courts; where federal cases begin and trials are held.

Divided Government

One party controls the executive, and the other party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Division of Powers

Basic principle of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided on a geographic basis.

Double Jeopardy

The constitutional prohibition against a person being put on trial more than once for the same offense.

Constitutional Connection:

Fifth Amendment

Draft

Process by which people enter compulsory service in the military.

Dual Federalism

Federal and state governments each have defined respinsibilities within their own sphere of influence; also called Layer Cake Federalism.

Due Process/Due Process Clause

The constitutional guarantee that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law."

Constitutional Connections:

Fifth Amendment

Fourteenth Amendment

Elastic Clause

Found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, it gives Congress the power to make "all laws necessary and proper" to carry out the other defined powers of Congress; also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Elector

A group of people named by each state legislature to select the president and vice president.

Electoral College

Group of persons (presidential electors) chosen in each State and the District of Columbia every four years who make a formal selection of the President and Vice President.

Electorate

All of the persons entitled to vote in a given election.

Elite Theory

A perspective holding that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in their self-interest; see also Pluralism.

Eminent Domain

The power of a government to seize private property for public use, usually with compensation to the owner.

Constitutional Connection:

Fifth Amendment

Entitlement Programs

Government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled to by law, regardless of need.

Examples:

Social Security

Medicare