A&P units 1-5

Upper left quadrant

spleen

Left kidney

Stomach

Pancreas (majority)

Lower left quadrant

Left uterer

Left ovary

Left fallopian tube

Right upper quadrant

Liver (majority)

Right kidney

Gallbladder

Right lower quadrant

Right uterer, Right ovary, Right fallopian tube, Appendix

Epigastric region

Above stomach (row 1, spot 2)

Hypogastric region

Below stomach (row 3, spot 2)

Left hypochondriac Region

(Row 1, spot 3)

Right hypochondriac region

Row 1, spot 1

Left lumbar region

Row 2 spot 3

umbilical region

Row 2 spot 2

Left lumbar region

Row 2 spot 3

Right iliac region

Row 3 spot 1

Left iliac region

Row 3 spot 3

Serous membrane

Thin sheet of epithelium (contains secretory cells that produce mucus-like secretion) and connective tissue (binds organs, contains nerves + blood vessels) that lines cavities not exposed to outside of body

Peritoneum

Largest serous membrane of the body (abdominopelvic cavity)

Pericardium

Covers heart and lines the mediastinum

Pleura

Covers the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity

Perimetrium

Lines the uterus

parietal peritoneum

½ types of peritoneum

Lines interior of the body WALL

Visceral peritoneum

½ types of peritoneum

Covers abdominal ORGANS

• contains large folds which weave between viscera

• Binds organs to each other + wall of the abdominal cavity

• Has blood + lymphatic vessels + nerves which supply the organs

Greater omentum

Specific portion of the visceral peritoneum

• LARGE fold that hangs loosely, covers anterior surface of abdominal viscera

• Connects stomach to transverse colon + posterior body wall

Lesser omentum

Specific portion of the visceral peritoneum

• connects stomach to liver + diaphragm

Mesentery

Specific portion of the visceral peritoneum

• holds together folds of small intestine + binds small intestine to posterior abdominal wall

pleurisy

an inflammation of the pleura, the two thin membranes that line the lungs and chest wall

peritonitis

inflammation of the peritoneum, the thin membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs

basic function

1. Support - framework for body; supports soft tissues. Provides att. pts for skeletal muscles

2. Protection - Organs from injury; Ribs (heart/lungs), Vertebrae (spinal cord), Cranium (brain)

3. Movement assist - muscle contraction pulls on bones, make movement together

4. Storage of Ca2+ - release minerals into blood to maintain homeostasis when needed

5. Blood cell production - Red bone marrow: RBCs, WBCs, platelets. In infant/fetal bones + some adult: pelvis, ribs, sternum, ends of arm/leg bones

6. storage of chemical energy - yellow bone marrow = fat reserve

basic organization

Axial:

• Skull (facial/cranial)

• Vertebral column (sacrum/coccyx)

• Sternum

• Ribs

Appendicular:

• hands/feet

• arms/legs

• wrist/ankles

• pectoral/pelvic girdle

Bones by shape

long bones: length > width, long shaft.

• Ex: femur, humerus, ulna/radius, tib/fib, phalanges

Short bones: cubish shaped, length = width

• ex. Carpals/Tarsals

Flat bones: gen. thin, extensive surface for muscle att. provide considerable protection

• cranial, sternum, ribs, scapulae bones

Irregular bones: complex, don’t fit into other categories

• ex: vertebrae of backbone: some facial bones

Sesamoid bones: protect tendons from wear and tear

• ex: patella

Diaphysis

long cylindrical body of bone

in growing bone, metaphysis includes the epiphyseal plate

plate = layer of cartilage that is being replaced by bone; bone grows in length

when growth stops, plate is replaced by bone creating feature called epiphyseal line

articular cartilage

reduces friction/absorbs shock

spongy bone

• contains red marrow; found in hip bones, ribs, breast bones, vertebrae, and the ends of long bones; irregular, criss-crossing of thin columns of bone

• spaces within the spongy bone is filled with red bone marrow

Compact bone

• few spaces

• external layer of all bones of the body and the bulk of the body of long bones

• protection/support/resistance to stress

marrow cavity

space within the diaphysis which contains fatty yellow marrow in adults

periosteum

• tough sheath of dense irregular connective tissue; surrounds the bone surface

• protects

• assists in fracture repair

• helps nourish bone

• serves as point of attachment for ligaments/tendons

endosteum

lines surface of marrow cavity, contains bone forming cells that contribute to growth in width of bone

Bone matrix

25% water

25% protein fibers

50% crystallized mineral salts (mainly Ca)

In the matrix abundant mineral salts are deposited into a framework made by collagen fibers, they crystallize and the tissue hardens (calcification)

Hardness - determined by crystallized inorganic mineral salts

flexibility - determined by collagen fibers

osteogenic cells

stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts. found inner portion of periosteum, endosteum, and canals within bones that have BVs

Epiphysis

distal/proximal bone ends

Metaphysis

regions in mature bone where epiphysis meets the diaphysis

osteoblasts

• bone building, do NOT divide

• synthesize+secrete collagen

• initiate calcification

• found on bone surface

• as they secrete matrix materials they become trapped in their secretions—>osteocytes

Osteocytes

• principal cells of bone tissues

• no long secrete matrix

• maintain cellular activities; nutrient/waste transport

Osteoclasts

• huge cells found in bone which release powerful lysosomal enzymes which function in the destruction of bone matrix (resorption)

Volkmann’s canals

• compact bone

• locations where blood/lymph vessels + nerves from periosteum penetrate transversely bone width

• these blood vessels connect w those of the periosteum, medullary cavity and central canals.

Haversian (central) canals

• compact bone

• run vertically

concentric lamellae

rings of hard calcified matrix surrounding haversian canals

lacunae

small spaces between lamellae that contain osteocytes

canaliculi

tiny channels that protect in all directions from the lacunae. give routes for nutrients and O2 to reach the osteocytes in lacunae and wastes to be removed

Osteon (Haversian system)

• compact bone

• a central canal and its surrounding lacunae, concentric lamellae, and canaliculi.

Trabeculae

spongy bone

• irregular latticework of thin columns of bone

• spaces btwen trabeculae of some bones is filled w red BM

• have osteocytes in lacunae

• BVs from periosteum penetrate+supply nourishment to the osteocytes

• make up most flat, short, irregularly shaped bones

• found in epiphysis of long bones

• spongy bone found within specific bones of adult is the ONLY site of red bone marrow and thus, hematopoiesis

Compound fracture

ends of bones protruding thru skin

comminuted fracture

bone splinter/fragments btwn the 2 main fragments

greenstick fracture

partial fracture; one side breaks and other bends

spiral fracture

a bone breaks in half by a twisting force/impact.

transverse fracture

breaks straight across bone

oblique fracture

bone is broken at an angle

displaced

bone breaks + moves out of alignment

nondisplaced

bone breaks, doesnt move out of alignment

closed fracture

skin isnt broken

stress fracture

very thin crack- from repetitive motion. aka hairline fracture

repair of bone steps

1. BVs of fracture site form fracture hematoma - capillaries grow into the fracture hematoma + WBCs/osteoclasts remove dead/damaged tissue

2. Procallus (Soft) callus forms - actively growing connective tissue/collagen fibers secreted. becomes a mass of repair tissue that bridges the broken ends of the bone

3. Bony (hard) callus forms - osteoblasts develop/produce spongy bone trabeculae. eventually tissue at fracture is completely converted to spongy bone

4. Bone remodeling - compact bone replaces spongy bone at the periphery. Osteoclasts gradually resorb dead fragment of OG broken bone

Fibrous joints

• immovable/SYNARthrosis

• no synovial cavity

• held together by fibrous connective tissue rich in collagen

• Ex: sutures of cranium, teeth

cartilaginous joints

• semi-movable/AMPHIARthrosis

• no synovial cavity

• ex: pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, ribs to sternum

Synovial joints

• freely movable/DIARthrosis

• synovial cavity btwn articulating bones

ligaments

tough bands of connective tissue. prevent irregular joint movement. attach bone to bone.

tendons

muscle to bone. tough connective tissue. create joint movement.

synovial fluid

secreted by cells in the synovial membrane - reduce friction

bursae

saclike structure found near joints and other points of friction. filled w fluid similar to synovial fluid, allows cushioning.

meniscus

• (articular discs)

• pads of fibrocartilage (cartilage that contains numerous thick bundles of collagens) that lie btwn the articular surfaces of bone

articular capsule

a fibrous tissue envelope surrounding a synovial joint

hinge joint

angular, open closing motion

ex; knee elbow

pivot joint

“peg in a hole” allows rotation around a central axis

ex: atlantoaxial joint- head to move side to side

planar joint

• 2 opposed flat surfaces that glide over each other; side to side and back and forth gliding

• ex: articular facets of the vertebrae intercarpal and intertarsal joints

ball and oscket joints

ball like surface of one bone fits into the cup like depression of another bone; wide range of motion

ex: hip or shoulder joint

strain

damage/stretch of tendons

sprain

• twisting/wrenching of a joint that stretches or tears its ligaments but does not dislocate the bone

• may damage BVs, muscles, tendons, and nerves

• cpnsiderable swelling

dislocation

displacement of a bone from a joint with tearing of ligaments, tendons, and articular capsule causing:

• intense pain

• joint instability

• reduced muscle strength

• difficulty moving/joint stiffness

subluxation

partial dislocation

avulsion

unattaching fragment of bone

hyperextension

movement of joint beyond normal, healthy range of motion

normal bone metabolism depends on

1. adequate minerals (Ca, P)

2. vitamins A, C, D

3. hormone levels (estrogen, test.)

4. Weight bearing exersise

without stress, bone does not remodel normally and resportion outpaces remodleing

At puberty

• estrogens + androgens being secreted in larger quantities

• cause growth spurt, pelvis widening in females, etc

• cartilage in ossification centers at ends of long bone has been completely converted to bone

• epiphyseal line

old age

• decreased collagen prod

• reduction of weight bearing exercise, less active

• reduced hormone prod

Osteoporosis

• porous bones, bone resorption outpaces ossification

• bone mass depleted, cannot withstand mechanical stress of everyday life

• bones easily fracture

• shrinkage of vertebrae, height loss, hunched back

treatment: drugs that mimic estrogen, calcium supplements, weight exercise

Aorta

Artery: delivers O2 blood from left ventricle to systemic circulation

Pulmonary artery

delivers deoxygenated blood to lungs from right side of heart

carotid arteries

BVs in neck that supply O2 blood (to brain face and neck)

subclavian arteries

beneath clavicles. provide O2 blood to head, neck + upper limbs

hepatic artery

main BV carries o2 blood to liver

mesenteric arteries

in the upper abdomen. supply blood to digestive system.

renal arteries

transport O2 blood from aorta to kidneys

iliac arteries

pair of BVs, branch from abdominal aorta. supply blood to lower limbs + pelvis

jugular veins

in the neck. base of skull—> upper chest. drain deoxygenated blood from the brain face and neck and return to heart.

subclavian veins

SUB clavian = under clavicle. blood drainage from the upper extremities and shoulders

Pulmonary vein

bring O2 blood from lungs to left atrium

superior vena cava

returns deoxy blood from head neck arms and chest to right atrium