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BPS Code of Ethics (2021)
Respect – recognizing the dignity of others through confidentiality, consent and considering the impacts on broader environment
Competence – services require specialist knowledge, so practitioners should have the ability to carry out these to a professional standard.
Responsibility – Professionals often have autonomy and should take responsibility for what is in their control, ensuring that the trust of others is not abused and taking accountability.
Integrity – Being honest and accurate in one’s actions. Being objective and open to challenging behavior in a professional context.
Thomas and Ansari (2020)
Educational neuroscience seeks to take findings from the study of neural mechanisms which underpin learning, and look into their practical applications for improving classroom education.
However, some researchers think that neuroscience is too remote from the classroom to be of educational value.
Rippon (2019)
fMRI created a fad in neuroscience in the 1990’s that entered popular culture beyond the world of science. Gave birth to the industry of neuromarketing, selling the idea that neuroscience could help us understand everyday behaviors in a way that could be sold.
Neuroscience began to be highly criticized for creating trends and exaggerating unreplicable findings, it became a hinderance to us actually understanding the brain.
One something enters the public consciousness it is difficult to remove.
Davidesco et al. (2021)
Cognitive neuroscience – takes place in controlled labs, can't tell us much about learning in the real world.
Portable brain devices have become more readily available, and can provide info about learning process that are not reflected in observation and survey.
However, some ethical concerns about misuse of brain data.
Tham et al (2019)
Neuroscience information needs to be accurate but simplified for teachers
Conducted a study looking at whether providing translated abstracts helped teachers to understand content more thoroughly, using surveys and focus groups.
Found that attitudes did not improve, but teachers were interest in the applications of neuroscience in the classroom.
Autonomic Nervous System - Pavol (2018)
Automatic functions to maintain homeostasis, controlling things that are beyond the human will (blood pressure, heart rate etc.), sensory neurons from autonomic receptors, motor neurons to smooth muscle, cardiac nodes and glands etc.
Also contains the sympathetic (flight and fight responses) and parasympathetic systems (rest and digest)
Synapses - Owens and Tanner (2017)
Found at the end of the axon, a gap where the electrical signal becomes chemical.
AP reaches the axon terminal, and this causes the vesicles to diffuse against the cell membrane and release a neurotransmitter
This then attaches onto the receptors, causing something to happen
Reuptake - the neurotransmitter goes back into the vesicles of the previous neuron
Singer (2008) - functional architecture
Depends on genes and epigenetic mechanisms. Determines how brains perceive and act. Learning tales place through creating long-lasting changes to this architecture. Neurons with a high probability of being activated are consolidated, low probability of activation are removed.
Johnson et al (2017)
Animal studies have shown that environmental deprivation can shape the brain, especially during sensitive periods when plasticity is at its greatest.
Differential susceptibility – some genetic variants are more vulnerable to environmental stimuli. Poverty may deprive the brain of key stimuli and increase levels of negative input
Luby et al. (2013)
Prospective longitudinal study of emotion development in preschool children. Participated in neuroimaging.
Children’s behaviour assessed yearly before MRI scan. Found that poverty was associated with smaller white and cortical gray matter, and hippocampal and amygdala volumes. However, the effects of poverty on hippocampal volume was mediated by caregiving support, and stressful life events
Experience expectant plasticity - Kolb (2017)
Neural mechanisms that take advantage of universal environmental input, particularly in early development. Only occurs during sensitive periods e.g. primary language. The brain is highly responsive to visual stimuli
However, this model is oversimplistic and the two are interdependent.
Experience dependent plasticity - Kolb (2017)
Considers more complex environmental stimuli. Not linked to normal patterns of development and can occur throughout life both during and outside of critical periods e.g. the development of a second language is development on exposure to environmental stimuli. Unique to individuals and their environments
However, this model is oversimplistic and the two are interdependent.
Cruz-Garcia et al. (2021)
Had adult participants conduct cognitive tasks whilst EEG’s measured brain activity.
Participants wore virtual reality (VR) headsets, where they saw variations of classroom designs, and changes in cognition were measured.
Participants' behavior in cognitive tasks didn’t change, but their brain activity did - suggesting that EEG allows for a more subtle understanding of learning than observation alone can provide.
Azhari et al. (2020)
Review that screened the experimental specifications and study characteristics of findings. Looked at EEG, MEG, FMRI and FNIRS.
Studies were mostly conducted around births and 12 months, mostly coming from North America.
Suggests that there needs to be more studies with larger and more diverse sample sizes from the more underdeveloped areas of the world
Carlson and Birkett (2017)
Identify that to entirely understand neuroscience, there needs to be an awareness of a range of experimental methods, since findings can be contradictory.
Knowland (2020) - Neuromodulation
Artificial enhancement of the brain using psychostimulants, which enhance cognition and release the potential of the human brain. Increase concentrations of dopamine, prescribed for ADHD.
Younger brains have more plasticity, and many studies have been tested on older brains which are less plastic.
Much evidence is created in lab rather than classroom contexts. Classrooms are a communal setting and learning takes place in a group context – very different to a lab.
Currie et al. (2014)
Conducted a natural experiment following a policy change in Quebec that made prescription medications more accessible.
Found that psychostimulant usage increased, both for those with and without ADHD, suggesting irresponsible distribution.
Found no long term educational benefits for those without ADHD symptoms and argued that medication was being used to replace environmental interventions.
Oxytocin - Fazel et al. (2021)
A bonding hormone that acts as a prerequisite for human learning
Humans are social animals and need the physical presence of their own kind to learn
Online learning during covid reduced Oxytocin - camera’s and mics off
Surveyed undergrads and 84% felt that remote learning had impacted their knowledge retention negatively
Cortisol - Knight (2017)
Released when children feel unsafe or stressed
e.g. peer challenges can obstruct learning
Teachers can ensure that peer relations are positive, through designing cooperative learning strategies
Serotonin - Knight (2017)
Mood regulator
Classrooms should look pleasing and be conductive to learning
Teachers can be positive and enthusiastic
Requirement of stability and assurance
Dopamine - Knight (2017)
The brain’s reward system
Activated in response or in anticipation to reward
Pleasurable moments make the brain more receptive to information
Teachers can give feedback that is specific and timely
Norepinephrine - Knight (2017)
influences the amygdala to allow for direct attention
released through movement to create more focus
Teachers can incorporate movement before learning e.g. 10 minutes at the start of each lesson
Synaptic Plasticity - Owens and Turner (2017)
Learning occurs because of changes in the strength and number of connections in existing neurones
Hutton et al. (2015)
Conducted a study of 3- to 5-year-olds within a larger longitudinal study of typical brain development. Measured blood oxygenation using fMRI during a story listening task. Found that higher reading exposure was associated with neural activation in brain area that supported semantic language processing. Controlled for household income.
Study controlled for SES
Highlights that by providing appropriate experiential stimuli, the functional architecture of the brain can shift in young children to support specific skills.
Dadvand et al. (2018)
Cohort of Barcelona school children, measuring lifelong exposure to green spaces by collecting the children’s addresses.
Used MRI and measured cognitive function.
Found that lifelong exposure to green spaces was associated with increased grey and white matter across brain regions.
These regions overlapped with performance on cognitive test scores e.g. prefrontal cortex. Predicted working memory skills and reduced inattentiveness
Neville et al. (2013)
Used an 8-week family training programme to improve cognitive skills in children from low SES backgrounds. Parents were trained in weekly 2-hour sessions on how to provide appropriate stimulation for their developing children
Measured ERP’s to understand changes to children’s brain function
Behaviour was measured through parent and teacher reports
Parenting was measured through observing parent-child interactions
Found that the family based intervention supported improvements in neural responses linked to selective attention, as well as in aspects of cognition and problem behaviours. Parents had better turn-taking and language interactions with children – more stimulating environment
Krammer et al. (2020)
Measured teacher’s beliefs in neuromyths and compared this with their overall academic achievement by looking at GPA
Found that endorsement in neuromyths did not show a significant association with GPA – suggesting that neuromyth belief did not reduce the quality of teaching or student achievement
However, could say that GPA does not appropriately measure the nuances of classroom life e.g. how easy it is for children to acquire the information, how time-consuming teaching of neuromyths is
Therefore, while neuromyths do not directly impact education, could be that they distract from more evidence-based strategies that could be even more effective or efficient.
Macdonald et al. (2017)
Used an online survey using a large US sample, compared the general public with educators, and a group that had knowledge of neuroscience
Asked participants how much they believed in the 7 most common neuromyths
Found that the general public endorsed the greatest amounts of neuromyths (68%), but were still high for the educator group (56%)
The neuroscience exposure group has the lowest belief, but was still high at 46% - suggests that exposure to neuroscience knowledge reduces but does not eliminate neuromyth endorsement
Quantiative survey – could be that neuroscience exposure was quantified too vaguely, could be that some people’s exposure to neuroscience was quite limited, but they still fit into this category
US sample – where the majority of neuroscience research is carried out, would be interesting to know if the findings differ elsewhere
Carboni et al. (2021)
Likert survey measuring how much teachers had engaged in neuroscience education e.g. attending popular events, taking cognitive science courses, being involved in lab research, being researchers themselves
Used neuromyths questionnaires to measure their knowledge and endorsement of neuromyths
Found that surface level exposure to neuroscience is not enough to reduce the impact of neuromyths e.g. through attending talks
Need deeper engagement with the scientific process – participating in research
Preventing the spread of neuromyths may mean that teachers should be involved in neuroscience research as part of their teacher training
Consulting teachers in research could mean that it is of a higher quality
However – is this practically feasible?
Dekker and Kim (2022)
Argues that educators strive towards evidence-based practice, but face a paywall to high quality-peer reviewed research
However, media-outlets and non-experts share free or low-cost learning styles resources
Suggests that neuromyths are born from good intentions for teachers, that are then taken advantage of for capital gain
Lethaby and Harries (2016)
Surveyed teachers’ perceptions of the VARK model
Found that all teachers had taken courses on learning styles in their teacher training and used this to inform their practice
Argued that learning styles may trigger cognitive overload in students, inhibiting learning rather than promoting it
Poldrack (2006) - reverse inference problem
The mistake of inferring a person’s mental state or cognitive processes solely based on brain activity
If researchers see a certain brain region is active, and infer that a certain process must be happening because prior research has linked that region to a specific process.
However, the brain is not as specialised as this, and brain regions are rarely tied to a single function
Sympathetic nervous system - Pavol (2018)
Activation gears the body toward immediate survival, often enhancing simple, rapid responses but sometimes at the cost of complex cognitive functions like flexible thinking or learning under high stress.
Pagan et al. (2021)
Cognitively healthy adults performed a mnemonic discrimination tasks twice
Took saliva samples to measure markers of activity in the sympathetic nervous system
Found that higher baseline sympathetic nervous system activation was associated with worse practice effects independent of age
Suggests that an activated stress response reduces memory
Whiting et al. (2021)
Literature review looking at how stress can help or hinder children’s learning capacities in the classroom
When the body is stressed, physiological changes occur to maximise the body’s capacity to respond to a challenge e.g. elevated heart rate, sweating, release of short-term energy stores – these responses together are the sympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system = fast acting stress response, endocrine system = slow acting response to stress e.g. cortisol release
Lots of heterogeneity – some children may be more sensitive to environmental stressors than others
Vogal and Schwabe (2016)
Discusses the role of stress in learning – exams, deadlines and interpersonal conflicts can result in high levels of stress in students
Stress around the time of learning can enhance memory formation, but can impair memory retrieval = risk of underachieving in exams
Stress can inhibit the updating of memories when new information is provided – less cognitive flexibility and promotes a more rigid form of learning
van Loon et al. (2021)
Conducted a meta-analysis to understand the effects of school-based stress reducing interventions on adolescent’s biological stress markers
Measured effects on cortisol levels, blood pressure and heart rate
Found that interventions significantly reduced blood pressure but had no significant effect on heart rate
Found that larger effects were observed for interventions that used mindfulness or meditation
Tarrash et al. (2018)
Tested whether a 10-week mindfulness program would improve sustained and selective attention in elementary school children compared to a control group.
45 min weekly mindfulness sessions e.g. breathing awareness, yoga and used measures of attention before and after taking part
Both groups improved over time (likely due to maturation), but the mindfulness group had stronger gains
Vanderwert et al. (2015)
Conducted a follow up of the Bucharest Early Intervention Project at age 12, where children raised in institutions were placed into positive foster care environments
Compared results against a follow up completed when the children were 8 years old
Used EEG, and found that children in a stable, high quality caregiving environment had healthier brain development
However – ethics, in order to complete an RCT, some children will have had to remain in a neglectful care situation
McLaughlin and Sheridan (2016)
Distinguish between deprivation (lack of input) and threat (exposure to trauma)
Argue that tailoring interventions requires understanding the specific type of adversity that children have experiences
Kolb (2017)
The brain is highly plastic to change, where neurones that are frequently used are consolidated, and neurones that are rarely activated become pruned
Brain is more plastic during childhood due to the rapid development of synapses in early life
Synaptic pruning of unused connections strengthens the most used ones
The brain is responsible to a wide range of factors, not just extreme deprivation
Sheridan et al (2022)
Used longitudinal data MRI from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, comparing children that experienced psychological deprivation from institutional care with children raised in foster care
Important, not just about living with non-biologically related caregivers, but about the style of care that is provided
Found decreased white matter integrity for institutionalised children, and institutionalised children had smaller overall grey and white matter volumes
Nelson et al. (2019)
Review article considering how early experience shapes human development
Argues that the timing of exposure to adversity or deprivation is significant
Sensitive period – it can be difficult to redirect development along a typical trajectory, and even with support a child may not fully recover e.g. language development between 0-7 years
Critical periods – result in irreversible changes, where behaviour is permanently affected e.g. vision development between 0-6 months
Weydant et al. (2020)
Systematic review of literature into the effects of cognitive training interventions on the neuroplasticity of children and adolescents
Studies showed an overall associated between experience dependent interventions and neuroplastic changes in children and adolescents – however conclusions are not causal
Environmental interventions were associated with corresponding behavioural changes e.g. increased attention, memory, and academic performance
Principle of No Harm
Limit harm as much as possible
Including physical, psychological and social harm
Department for Education (2025)
Release statistics for children in need (children that are deemed to need additional support due to factors that place their development at risk)
Includes children that are looked after the local authority
Also linked to children in poverty, although this is not directly measured
The number of children in need reaching the expected standard for reading, writing and maths is half that for the overall pupil population